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Vietnam Veterans War Gold Coin Old Soldier US Army Platoon Apocalypse Now Retro
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Seller: checkoutmyunqiuefunitems ✉️ (4,505) 99.6%, Location: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 276640951069 Vietnam Veterans War Gold Coin Old Soldier US Army Platoon Apocalypse Now Retro. Year Country Title Director Events depicted. • Water (%). 331,344.82[7][d] km2 (127,932.95 sq mi) (66th). 28 November 2013[c]. • Current constitution. 18 December 1986. 2 July 1976. • Reunification. Vietnam War Veteran Gold Plated Coin The coin you will receive would have not been removed from its case This is gold plated Vietnam War coin One side has a map of Vietnam on a black background with all the major cities marked off Around the edge is the words "Veteran" with 6 stars and the words "1959 Vietnam War 1975" The back has 2 Helicopters over a Jungle with the colours of a ribbon from a medal There is also a large space which could be engraved with a personal message Dimensions 40mm in diameter and weights about 1 oz It comes inside a plastic airtight case Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the piece justice which looks a lot better in real life Would make an Excellent Present or Collectable Keepsake souvenir Click Here to Check out my other War Items Buy with Confidence please read my feedback from over 4000 satisfied customer Read how quickly they receive their items - I post all my items within 24 hours of receiving payment International customers are welcome. I have shipped items to over 120 countries International orders may require longer handling time if held up at customs If there is a problem I always give a full refund Returns are accepted If your unhappy with your item please return it for a full refund I am a UK Seller with 10 Years of eBay Selling Experience Why not treat yourself? I always combine multiple items and send an invoice with discounted postage I leave instant feedback upon receiving yours All payment methods accepted from all countries in all currencies Are you looking for a Interesting conversation piece? A birthday present for the person who has everything? A comical gift to cheer someone up? or a special unique gift just to say thank you? You now know where to look for a bargain! I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * 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Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra The Vietnam War was a long, costly and divisive conflict that pitted the communist government of North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The conflict was intensified by the ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. More than 3 million people (including over 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War, and more than half of the dead were Vietnamese civilians. Opposition to the war in the United States bitterly divided Americans, even after President Richard Nixon signed the Paris Peace Accords and ordered the withdrawal of U.S. forces in 1973. Communist forces ended the war by seizing control of South Vietnam in 1975, and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year. Roots of the Vietnam War Ho Chi Minh PausePause MuteMute Current Time1:13 / Duration Time3:34 SUBTITLESSubtitles SETTINGSHDSettings Fullscreen Vietnam, a nation in Southeast Asia on the eastern edge of the Indochinese peninsula, had been under French colonial rule since the 19th century. During World War II, Japanese forces invaded Vietnam. To fight off both Japanese occupiers and the French colonial administration, political leader Ho Chi Minh—inspired by Chinese and Soviet communism—formed the Viet Minh, or the League for the Independence of Vietnam. Following its 1945 defeat in World War II, Japan withdrew its forces from Vietnam, leaving the French-educated Emperor Bao Dai in control. Seeing an opportunity to seize control, Ho’s Viet Minh forces immediately rose up, taking over the northern city of Hanoi and declaring a Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) with Ho as president. Seeking to regain control of the region, France backed Emperor Bao and set up the state of Vietnam in July 1949, with the city of Saigon as its capital. Both sides wanted the same thing: a unified Vietnam. But while Ho and his supporters wanted a nation modeled after other communist countries, Bao and many others wanted a Vietnam with close economic and cultural ties to the West. Did you know? According to a survey by the Veterans Administration, some 500,000 of the 3 million troops who served in Vietnam suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, and rates of divorce, suicide, alcoholism and drug addiction were markedly higher among veterans. When Did the Vietnam War Start? The Vietnam War and active U.S. involvement in the war began in 1954, though ongoing conflict in the region had stretched back several decades. After Ho’s communist forces took power in the north, armed conflict between northern and southern armies continued until the northern Viet Minh’s decisive victory in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. The French loss at the battle ended almost a century of French colonial rule in Indochina. The subsequent treaty signed in July 1954 at a Geneva conference split Vietnam along the latitude known as the 17th Parallel (17 degrees north latitude), with Ho in control in the North and Bao in the South. The treaty also called for nationwide elections for reunification to be held in 1956. In 1955, however, the strongly anti-communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem pushed Emperor Bao aside to become president of the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN), often referred to during that era as South Vietnam. This April 1968 file photo shows the first sergeant of A Company, 101st Airborne Division, guiding a medevac helicopter through the jungle foliage to pick up casualties suffered during a five-day patrol near Hue. 1968 was the deadliest year for American soldiers in Vietnam, and this image, captured by freelance photographer Art Greenspon, summed up the tremendous cost being paid by young men fighting in what increasingly felt like a futile war. A buddhist monk makes the ultimate protest in Saigon by self-immolation on June 11, 1963. On June 11, 1963, a Buddhist monk named Thich Quang Duc sat calmly in a busy intersection near Siagon’s Presidential Palace as a fellow monk doused him with gasoline. After saying a short prayer, Thich Quang Duc lit a match and dropped it into his lap, instantly engulfing his body in flames. Images of the monk’s stoic self-immolation, taken by AP journalist Malcolm Browne, sent shockwaves around the world. In this Feb. 1, 1968, file photo, South Vietnamese Gen. Nguyen Ngoc Loan, chief of the National Police, fires his pistol into the head of suspected Viet Cong officer Nguyen Van Lem (also known as Bay Lop) on a Saigon street In February 1968, newspapers including the New York Times published this photo on their front pages: A South Vietnamese police chief calmly executes a Vietcong fighter in the streets of Saigon. The image, which won a Pulitzer Prize for photographer Eddie Adams, caused many Americans to openly question the morality of the war. The Johnson family watches coverage of protests at the Democratic Convention on August 28 1968. Shown are, (L-R) Luci Johnson Nugent, Tom Johnson, unidentified, Lynda Johnson Robb; in bed: President Lyndon B. Johnson, Lady Bird Johnson. The president and First Lady Ladybird Johnson are watching coverage of the anti-war protests outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago in this incredibly intimate moment captured by White House photographer Yoichi Okamoto. As others call for help, teenager Mary Ann Vecchio (center) kneels beside the body of Kent State University student Jeffrey Miller (1950 - 1970) who had been shot during an anti-war demonstration on the university campus, Kent, Ohio, May 4, 1970. On May 4, 1970, National Guard troops ordered protesters at Kent State to disperse, but the crowd of roughly 3,000 refused, with some throwing rocks at the Guardsmen. No one expected what happened next. The National Guard troops opened fire. Four Kent State students were killed that day and nine more were injured. Student photographer John Filo won a Pulitzer Prize for his gripping photo of 14-year-old Mary Ann Vecchio crying out next to the fallen body of Jeffrey Miller. "The Terror of War," Nick Ut's 1972 Pulitzer Prize-winning photo of children fleeing a napalm attack. Vietnamese-American photographer Nick Ut won a Pulitzer Prize for his 1972 image of innocent children fleeing an accidental napalm attack on their village. Front and center is nine-year-old Kim Phuc, naked and badly burned by the American chemical weapon. Fall of Saigon U.S. airlift On April 29, 1975, the fall of Saigon was imminent. Panic engulfed the streets of the South Vietnamese capital as North Vietnamese troops encircled the city. American diplomats and journalists were ordered to evacuate Saigon immediately, and scores of South Vietnamese citizens crowded outside the U.S. Embassy in hopes of boarding one of the Marine helicopters carrying people to safety.This iconic image, taken by Dutch journalist Hubert van Es, perfectly captured the desperate and ignominious withdrawal from Saigon.Read more about iconic images of the Vietnam War era here. 1 / 7: AP PHOTO/ART GREENSPON The Viet Cong With the Cold War intensifying worldwide, the United States hardened its policies against any allies of the Soviet Union, and by 1955 President Dwight D. Eisenhower had pledged his firm support to Diem and South Vietnam. With training and equipment from American military and the CIA, Diem’s security forces cracked down on Viet Minh sympathizers in the south, whom he derisively called Viet Cong (or Vietnamese Communist), arresting some 100,000 people, many of whom were brutally tortured and executed. By 1957, the Viet Cong and other opponents of Diem’s repressive regime began fighting back with attacks on government officials and other targets, and by 1959 they had begun engaging the South Vietnamese army in firefights. In December 1960, Diem’s many opponents within South Vietnam—both communist and non-communist—formed the National Liberation Front (NLF) to organize resistance to the regime. Though the NLF claimed to be autonomous and that most of its members were not communists, many in Washington assumed it was a puppet of Hanoi. American Paratroopers in field Below Helicopters in South Vietnam(Original Caption) 5/31/1965-Bien Hoa, South Vietnam: United States paratroopers spread out after disembarking from helicopters during a co-ordinated exercise, the first in which all elements of the 173rd Airborne were used. Communist forces are reported to be making heavy attacks against units of the South Vietnamese army and have caused heavy casualties. Vietnam War Timeline Vietnam Background: Uneasy French Rule • 1887: France imposes a colonial system over Vietnam, calling it French Indochina. The system includes Tonkin, Annam, Cochin China and Cambodia. Laos is added in 1893. • 1923-25: Vietnamese nationalist Ho Chi Minh is trained in the Soviet Union as an agent of the Communist International (Comitern). • February 1930: Ho Chi […] Read more Henry Kissinger’s Mixed Role in the Vietnam War Henry Kissinger’s Controversial Role in the Vietnam War As Nixon’s Secretary of State, Kissinger both escalated the war—and tried to end it. Read more Vietnam War 6 Events That Laid the Groundwork for the Vietnam War The conflict in Vietnam took root during an independence movement against French colonial rule and evolved into a Cold War confrontation. Read more Domino Theory A team sent by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 to report on conditions in South Vietnam advised a build-up of American military, economic and technical aid in order to help Diem confront the Viet Cong threat. Working under the “domino theory,” which held that if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, many other countries would follow, Kennedy increased U.S. aid, though he stopped short of committing to a large-scale military intervention. By 1962, the U.S. military presence in South Vietnam had reached some 9,000 troops, compared with fewer than 800 during the 1950s. Gulf of Tonkin Gulf of Tonkin Resolution A coup by some of his own generals succeeded in toppling and killing Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu, in November 1963, three weeks before Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. The ensuing political instability in South Vietnam persuaded Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to further increase U.S. military and economic support. In August of 1964, after DRV torpedo boats attacked two U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson ordered the retaliatory bombing of military targets in North Vietnam. Congress soon passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave Johnson broad war-making powers, and U.S. planes began regular bombing raids, codenamed Operation Rolling Thunder, the following year. The bombing was not limited to Vietnam; from 1964-1973, the United States covertly dropped two million tons of bombs on neighboring, neutral Laos during the CIA-led “Secret War” in Laos. The bombing campaign was meant to disrupt the flow of supplies across the Ho Chi Minh trail into Vietnam and to prevent the rise of the Pathet Lao, or Lao communist forces. The U.S. bombings made Laos the most heavily bombed country per capita in the world. In March 1965, Johnson made the decision—with solid support from the American public—to send U.S. combat forces into battle in Vietnam. By June, 82,000 combat troops were stationed in Vietnam, and military leaders were calling for 175,000 more by the end of 1965 to shore up the struggling South Vietnamese army. Despite the concerns of some of his advisers about this escalation, and about the entire war effort amid a growing anti-war movement, Johnson authorized the immediate dispatch of 100,000 troops at the end of July 1965 and another 100,000 in 1966. In addition to the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia and New Zealand also committed troops to fight in South Vietnam (albeit on a much smaller scale). William Westmoreland In contrast to the air attacks on North Vietnam, the U.S.-South Vietnamese war effort in the south was fought primarily on the ground, largely under the command of General William Westmoreland, in coordination with the government of General Nguyen Van Thieu in Saigon. Westmoreland pursued a policy of attrition, aiming to kill as many enemy troops as possible rather than trying to secure territory. By 1966, large areas of South Vietnam had been designated as “free-fire zones,” from which all innocent civilians were supposed to have evacuated and only enemy remained. Heavy bombing by B-52 aircraft or shelling made these zones uninhabitable, as refugees poured into camps in designated safe areas near Saigon and other cities. Even as the enemy body count (at times exaggerated by U.S. and South Vietnamese authorities) mounted steadily, DRV and Viet Cong troops refused to stop fighting, encouraged by the fact that they could easily reoccupy lost territory with manpower and supplies delivered via the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Cambodia and Laos. Additionally, supported by aid from China and the Soviet Union, North Vietnam strengthened its air defenses. Vietnam War Protests Why Did Columbia University Students Protest in 1968? By November 1967, the number of American troops in Vietnam was approaching 500,000, and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded. As the war stretched on, some soldiers came to mistrust the government’s reasons for keeping them there, as well as Washington’s repeated claims that the war was being won. The later years of the war saw increased physical and psychological deterioration among American soldiers—both volunteers and draftees—including drug use, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), mutinies and attacks by soldiers against officers and noncommissioned officers. Between July 1966 and December 1973, more than 503,000 U.S. military personnel deserted, and a robust anti-war movement among American forces spawned violent protests, killings and mass incarcerations of personnel stationed in Vietnam as well as within the United States. Bombarded by horrific images of the war on their televisions, Americans on the home front turned against the war as well: In October 1967, some 35,000 demonstrators staged a massive Vietnam War protest outside the Pentagon. Opponents of the war argued that civilians, not enemy combatants, were the primary victims and that the United States was supporting a corrupt dictatorship in Saigon. Tet Offensive The Tet Offensive By the end of 1967, Hanoi’s communist leadership was growing impatient as well, and sought to strike a decisive blow aimed at forcing the better-supplied United States to give up hopes of success. On January 31, 1968, some 70,000 DRV forces under General Vo Nguyen Giap launched the Tet Offensive (named for the lunar new year), a coordinated series of fierce attacks on more than 100 cities and towns in South Vietnam. Taken by surprise, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces nonetheless managed to strike back quickly, and the communists were unable to hold any of the targets for more than a day or two. Reports of the Tet Offensive stunned the U.S. public, however, especially after news broke that Westmoreland had requested an additional 200,000 troops, despite repeated assurances that victory in the Vietnam War was imminent. With his approval ratings dropping in an election year, Johnson called a halt to bombing in much of North Vietnam (though bombings continued in the south) and promised to dedicate the rest of his term to seeking peace rather than reelection. Johnson’s new tack, laid out in a March 1968 speech, met with a positive response from Hanoi, and peace talks between the U.S. and North Vietnam opened in Paris that May. Despite the later inclusion of the South Vietnamese and the NLF, the dialogue soon reached an impasse, and after a bitter 1968 election season marred by violence, Republican Richard M. Nixon won the presidency. Vietnamization Vietnamization Nixon sought to deflate the anti-war movement by appealing to a “silent majority” of Americans who he believed supported the war effort. In an attempt to limit the volume of American casualties, he announced a program called Vietnamization: withdrawing U.S. troops, increasing aerial and artillery bombardment and giving the South Vietnamese the training and weapons needed to effectively control the ground war. In addition to this Vietnamization policy, Nixon continued public peace talks in Paris, adding higher-level secret talks conducted by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger beginning in the spring of 1968. The North Vietnamese continued to insist on complete and unconditional U.S. withdrawal—plus the ouster of U.S.-backed General Nguyen Van Thieu—as conditions of peace, however, and as a result the peace talks stalled. My Lai Massacre My Lai Massacre The next few years would bring even more carnage, including the horrifying revelation that U.S. soldiers had mercilessly slaughtered more than 400 unarmed civilians in the village of My Lai in March 1968. After the My Lai Massacre, anti-war protests continued to build as the conflict wore on. In 1968 and 1969, there were hundreds of protest marches and gatherings throughout the country. On November 15, 1969, the largest anti-war demonstration in American history took place in Washington, D.C., as over 250,000 Americans gathered peacefully, calling for withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. The anti-war movement, which was particularly strong on college campuses, divided Americans bitterly. For some young people, the war symbolized a form of unchecked authority they had come to resent. For other Americans, opposing the government was considered unpatriotic and treasonous. As the first U.S. troops were withdrawn, those who remained became increasingly angry and frustrated, exacerbating problems with morale and leadership. Tens of thousands of soldiers received dishonorable discharges for desertion, and about 500,000 American men from 1965-73 became “draft dodgers,” with many fleeing to Canada to evade conscription. Nixon ended draft calls in 1972, and instituted an all-volunteer army the following year. Kent State Shooting The Kent State Shootings In 1970, a joint U.S-South Vietnamese operation invaded Cambodia, hoping to wipe out DRV supply bases there. The South Vietnamese then led their own invasion of Laos, which was pushed back by North Vietnam. The invasion of these countries, in violation of international law, sparked a new wave of protests on college campuses across America. During one, on May 4, 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio, National Guardsmen shot and killed four students. At another protest 10 days later, two students at Jackson State University in Mississippi were killed by police. By the end of June 1972, however, after a failed offensive into South Vietnam, Hanoi was finally willing to compromise. Kissinger and North Vietnamese representatives drafted a peace agreement by early fall, but leaders in Saigon rejected it, and in December Nixon authorized a number of bombing raids against targets in Hanoi and Haiphong. Known as the Christmas Bombings, the raids drew international condemnation. The Pentagon Papers Some of the papers from the archive of Daniel Ellsberg, who leaked the Pentagon Papers in 1971 JONATHAN WIGGS/THE BOSTON GLOBE VIA GETTY IMAGES SOME OF THE PAPERS FROM THE ARCHIVE OF DANIEL ELLSBERG, WHO LEAKED THE PENTAGON PAPERS IN 1971 A top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967 was published in the New York Times in 1971—shedding light on how the Nixon administration ramped up conflict in Vietnam. The report, leaked to the Times by military analyst Daniel Ellsberg, further eroded support for keeping U.S. forces in Vietnam. When Did the Vietnam War End? How WWII and Vietnam Veterans Were Treated Differently In January 1973, the United States and North Vietnam concluded a final peace agreement, ending open hostilities between the two nations. War between North and South Vietnam continued, however, until April 30, 1975, when DRV forces captured Saigon, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City (Ho himself died in 1969). More than two decades of violent conflict had inflicted a devastating toll on Vietnam’s population: After years of warfare, an estimated 2 million Vietnamese were killed, while 3 million were wounded and another 12 million became refugees. Warfare had demolished the country’s infrastructure and economy, and reconstruction proceeded slowly. In 1976, Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, though sporadic violence continued over the next 15 years, including conflicts with neighboring China and Cambodia. Under a broad free market policy put in place in 1986, the economy began to improve, boosted by oil export revenues and an influx of foreign capital. Trade and diplomatic relations between Vietnam and the U.S. resumed in the 1990s. In the United States, the effects of the Vietnam War would linger long after the last troops returned home in 1973. The nation spent more than $120 billion on the conflict in Vietnam from 1965-73; this massive spending led to widespread inflation, exacerbated by a worldwide oil crisis in 1973 and skyrocketing fuel prices. Psychologically, the effects ran even deeper. The war had pierced the myth of American invincibility and had bitterly divided the nation. Many returning veterans faced negative reactions from both opponents of the war (who viewed them as having killed innocent civilians) and its supporters (who saw them as having lost the war), along with physical damage including the effects of exposure to the toxic herbicide Agent Orange, millions of gallons of which had been dumped by U.S. planes on the dense forests of Vietnam. In 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was unveiled in Washington, D.C. On it were inscribed the names of 57,939 American men and women killed or missing in the war; later additions brought that total to 58,200. Kent State Shooting: Timeline Kent State Shootings: A Timeline of the Tragedy A weekend of escalating tensions exploded into 13 seconds of gunfire—and four dead in Ohio. Read more Fires burn behind a Buddhist monk crossing a bridge on the first day of the Tet Offensive How the Tet Offensive Shocked Americans into Questioning if the Vietnam War Could be Won Turns out, the US had made one miscalculation after another. Read more This 21-Year-Old College Student Designed the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Maya Lin won a design competition—and sparked a national controversy. Read more HISTORY Vault: Vietnam in HD See the Vietnam War unfold through the gripping firsthand accounts of 13 brave men and women forever changed by their experiences. WATCH NOW BY: HISTORY.COM EDITORS HISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. Articles with the “HISTORY.com Editors” byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata. Citation Information Article TitleVietnam War AuthorHistory.com Editors Website NameHISTORY URLhttps://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history Date AccessedSeptember 14, 2024 PublisherA&E Television Networks Last UpdatedMay 16, 2024 Original Published DateOctober 29, 2009 Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. PRINT PAGE Sign up for Inside History Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week. Email Address SIGN UP By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States. More details: Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us More on this Topic | Vietnam War This April 1968 file photo shows the first sergeant of A Company, 101st Airborne Division, guiding a medevac helicopter through the jungle foliage to pick up casualties suffered during a five-day patrol near Hue. 7 Iconic Photos From the Vietnam War Era Gifted photographers and reporters captured images that conveyed the agony and violence of the Vietnam war, and the deep divisions it drove in American society. Read more Henry Kissinger’s Mixed Role in the Vietnam War Henry Kissinger’s Controversial Role in the Vietnam War As Nixon’s Secretary of State, Kissinger both escalated the war—and tried to end it. Read more U.S. Chairman of the Joint chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell works February 1991 in Washington, D.C. Powell is overseeing military operations both stateside and in Operation Desert Storm during the war against Iraq that broke out in January 1991. How Colin Powell’s Service in Vietnam Shaped His Leadership Colin Powell served two combat tours in the Vietnam conflict and earned three medals for his service. Read more What Happened to Vietnamese Refugees After the Vietnam War? How the End of the Vietnam War Led to a Refugee Crisis The fall of Saigon in April 1975 marked the close of the war, but also the beginning of one of the largest and longest refugee crises in history. Read more A Timeline of U.S. Anti-War Protests A Timeline of U.S. Anti-War Movements Anti-war movements date back to the birth of the United States. Read more How the Ali-Frazier ‘Fight of the Century’ Became a Proxy Battle for a Divided Nation The March 8, 1971 fight between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier unfolded against the backdrop of a nation tearing itself apart over civil rights and the war in Vietnam. Vietnam profile - Timeline Published 22 April 2018 Share A chronology of key events: 1858 - French colonial rule begins. 1930 - Ho Chi Minh founds the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP). 1941 - ICP organises a guerrilla force, Viet Minh, in response to invasion by Japan during World War II. 1945 - The Viet Minh seizes power. Ho Chi Minh announces Vietnam's independence. 1946 - French forces attack Viet Minh in Haiphong in November, sparking the war of resistance against the colonial power. 1950 - Democratic Republic of Vietnam is recognised by China and USSR. 1954 - Viet Minh forces attack an isolated French military outpost in the town of Dien Bien Phu. The attempt to take the outpost lasts two months, during which time the French government agrees to peace talks in Geneva. Vietnam is split into North and South at Geneva conference. 1956 - South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem begins campaign against political dissidents. 1957 - Beginning of Communist insurgency in the South. 1959 - Weapons and men from North Vietnam begin infiltrating the South. 1960 - American aid to Diem increased. 1962 - Number of US military advisors in South Vietnam rises to 12,000. 1963 - Viet Cong, the communist guerrillas operating in South Vietnam, defeat units of the ARVN, the South Vietnamese Army. President Diem is overthrown and then killed in a US-backed military coup. US enters the war 1964 - Gulf of Tonkin incident: the US says North Vietnamese patrol boats fire on two US Navy destroyers. US Congress approves Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorising military action in region. 1965 - 200,000 American combat troops arrive in South Vietnam. 1966 - US troop numbers in Vietnam rise to 400,000, then to 500,000 the following year. 1968 - Tet Offensive - a combined assault by Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese army on US positions - begins. More than 500 civilians die in the US massacre at My Lai. Thousands are killed by communist forces during their occupation of the city of Hue. 1969 - Ho Chi Minh dies. President Nixon begins to reduce US ground troops in Vietnam as domestic public opposition to the war grows. 1970 - Nixon's national security advisor, Henry Kissinger, and Le Duc Tho, for the Hanoi government, start talks in Paris. 1973 - Ceasefire agreement in Paris, US troop pull-out completed by March. 1975 - North Vietnamese troops invade South Vietnam and take control of the whole country after South Vietnamese President Duong Van Minh surrenders. Reconstruction 1976 - Socialist Republic of Vietnam proclaimed. Saigon is re-named Ho Chi Minh City. Hundreds of thousands flee abroad, including many "boat people". 1979 - Vietnam invades Cambodia and ousts the Khmer Rouge regime of Pol Pot. In response, Chinese troops cross Vietnam's northern border. They are pushed back by Vietnamese forces. The number of "boat people" trying to leave Vietnam causes international concern. 1986 - Nguyen Van Linh becomes party leader. He introduces a more liberal economic policy. 1989 - Vietnamese troops withdraw from Cambodia. 1992 - New constitution adopted allowing certain economic freedoms. The Communist Party remains the leading force in Vietnamese society. Reconciliation 1994 - US lifts its 30-year trade embargo. 1995 - Vietnam and US restore full diplomatic relations. Vietnam becomes full member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Asean). 1997 - Le Kha Phieu becomes party leader. Tran Duc Luong chosen as president, Phan Van Khai becomes prime minister. 1998 - A senior party member, Pham The Duyet, faces charges of corruption. Economic growth slumps in the wake of the Asian financial crisis. 1999 - A former high-ranking party member, Tran Do, is expelled after calling for more democracy and freedom of expression. 2000 - US President Bill Clinton pays a three-day official visit. The US pledges more help to clear landmines left over from the Vietnam war. The Vietnamese government estimates nearly 40,000 people have been killed by unexploded munitions. 2001 - The Communist Party chooses Nong Duc Manh as its new leader. US, Vietnam implement a trade agreement which normalises the trade status between them. 2002 - Russia hands back the Cam Ranh Bay naval base, once the largest Soviet base outside the Warsaw Pact. President Tran Duc Luong reappointed for second term by National Assembly, which also reappoints Prime Minister Phan Van Khai for second five-year term. 2004 - First US commercial flight since the end of the Vietnam War touches down in Ho Chi Minh City. 2005 - Prime Minister Phan Van Khai makes the first visit to the US by a Vietnamese leader since the end of the Vietnam War. 2006 January onwards - Senior officials are investigated over the alleged embezzlement of millions of dollars of state money in the transport ministry. 2006 June - As part of an anticipated political shake-up, the prime minister, president and National Assembly chairman are replaced by younger leaders. WTO membership 2007 January - After 12 years of talks, Vietnam becomes the 150th member of the World Trade Organization. 2007 February - Government approves a $33bn plan to build a high-speed rail link between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in the south. 2007 February - US agrees for the first time to help fund a study into the removal of Agent Orange, the highly toxic defoliant used by US forces, from a former US base in Da Nang. 2007 June - President Nguyen Minh Triet makes first visit to the US by a Vietnamese head of state since the Vietnam War ended in 1975. 2007 July - Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung reappointed, promises to push through economic reforms. 2008 April - Vietnam launches first communications satellite from French Guiana. Media clampdown 2008 October - US and international media campaigners condemn the guilty verdicts on two Vietnamese journalists Nguyen Viet Chien and Nguyen Van Hai, who had helped to expose a major corruption scandal. Nguyen Van Hai pleads guilty and is spared imprisonment. 2008 November - Vietnam says it plans to enforce a two-child policy in an attempt to control population growth. 2008 December - China and Vietnam resolve border dispute 30 years after 1979 war which left tens of thousands dead. Government bans bloggers from raising "inappropriate" subjects. 2009 January - Jailed journalist Nguyen Viet Chien is among more than 15,000 prisoners freed early under a Lunar New Year amnesty - one of Vietnam's largest. Government dismisses Nguyen Cong Khe and Le Hoang, the editors of the two largest pro-reform newspapers, over their coverage of the October corruption scandal trial. 2009 June - Vietnam calls on China to stop preventing Vietnamese fishermen from working in what Hanoi says are its territorial waters amid growing tensions over fishing grounds. 2009 October - Six democracy activists sentenced to up to six years in prison for "spreading propaganda" against the government by hanging pro-democracy banners on a road bridge. 2009 December - Pro-democracy activist Tran Anh Kim receives five-and-a-half-year jail sentence for subversion after allegedly publishing pro-democracy articles on internet. 2010 January - Four activists, including prominent human rights lawyer Le Cong Dinh, are jailed on charges of trying to overthrow the government. Rights groups abroad say the case is a sign of an growing clampdown on freedom of expression. 2010 May - Human Rights Watch accuses Vietnam of intensifying its suppression of online dissent. 2010 July/August - The government arrests the chairman of shipbuilding corporation Vinashin, one of the country's largest state-owned companies, for allegedly nearly bankrupting the enterprise. 2011 January - Five-yearly congress of the Communist Party reappoints Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung and elects the head of the national assembly, Nguyen Phu Trong, as party secretary-general. 2011 June - Vietnam begins joint operation with the United States to clean up contamination from the toxic Agent Orange defoliant widely used by the US military during the Vietnam war. 2011 October - China and Vietnam sign an agreement to manage the South China Sea dispute. It includes a hotline to deal with emergencies and a provision for twice-yearly bilateral meetings. 2012 June: Vietnam surpasses Brazil to become the world's largest coffee exporter. 2012 October: Communist Party chief Nguyen Phu Trong acknowledges mistakes in preventing corruption in response to public anger over a recent spate of scandals at state-owned enterprises. 2012 November: The Communist-dominated parliament votes to require elected leaders, including the president and the prime minister, to face annual confidence votes. Observers say the votes may be little more than symbolic. 2013 February - Twenty two people sentenced for trying to overthrow the government, in what is seen as a renewed clampdown on freedom of expression. 2013 August - New decree bans internet users from discussing current affairs online. 2013 September - Economy grows by 5.14% in first three quarters of year, marking return to growth after years of stagnation. 2013 October - Leading dissident Le Quoc Quan sentenced to 30 months in jail for tax evasion, charges his supporters say are politically motivated. 2014 January - State media for first time marks anniversary of South Vietnam's 1974 clash with China over Paracel Islands, in sign of growing tension over Chinese intentions in the area. Court sentences former Vietinbank official Huynh Thi Huyen Nhu to life in prison in possibly country's largest fraud trial. Twenty-two others get jail terms of up to 20 years, but public voices discontent at clearing bank of any liability. 2014 March-April - Vietnam releases high-profile democracy campaigners Cu Huy Ha Vu, Nguyen Tien Trung and Vi Duc Hoi amid Trans-Pacific Partnership free trade talks with the United States. At same time prominent bloggers Pham Viet Dao and Truong Duy Nhat jailed for "abusing democratic freedoms to infringe interests of state". 2014 May - One Chinese worker killed and at least 90 other people injured when protesters attack Taiwanese-owned steel mill in Ha Tinh province. Crowds attack several other foreign-owned companies in protest at China's moving drilling rig into waters also claimed by Vietnam in South China Sea. 2014 August - The chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, Martin Dempsey, holds talks with Vietnamese leaders, in the highest level visit by an American military officer since the Vietnam war. 2014 October - The United States says it will partially lift its embargo on arms sales to Vietnam, which has been in place for three decades. Washington says the move applies to weapons for maritime purposes only. 2014 October - Prominent dissident blogger Nguyen Van Hai is released from prison and flies to the US after serving two years of a 12-year sentence for conducting "anti-state propaganda". 2015 February - The government revokes licence of outspoken newspaper Nguoi Cao Tuoi website - "Elderly" in Vietnamese - after it publishes articles which allegedly "abuse freedom and democratic rights". 2016 January - Communist Party re-elects conservative Nguyen Phu Trong as general secretary for second term, after relatively liberal Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung withdrew from contest after failing to garner enough support from delegates. 2016 May - US lifts long-standing ban on selling weapons to Vietnam. 2016 July - Government says its Vietnam says it will release 20,000 prisoners over the next two years to save money. Formosa Ha Tinh Steel is ordered to compensate local fishing communities after authorities establish toxic chemicals from its plant caused widespread fish deaths along the central coast. 2016 September - India announces half a billion dollars worth of credit for Vietnam for defence spending. Vietnam issues an international arrest warrant for oil executive Trinh Xuan Thanh on fraud charges. 2016 November - Police arrest well-known blogger Ho Van Hai for posting articles critical of the government. His arrest is latest of an ongoing crackdown on writers and activists. 2017 January - Vietnam introduces draft law requiring all adult citizens to donate blood once a month due to a shortage at national blood banks. Vietnam Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Coordinates: 16°N 108°E Page extended-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Vietnam (disambiguation). Socialist Republic of Vietnam Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam (Vietnamese) Flag of Vietnam Flag Emblem of Vietnam Emblem Motto: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc "Independence – Freedom – Happiness" Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca "The Song of the Marching Troops" Duration: 1 minute and 3 seconds.1:03 Show globe Show map of ASEAN Show all Location of Vietnam (green) in ASEAN (dark grey) Capital Hanoi 21°2′N 105°51′E Largest city Ho Chi Minh City 10°48′N 106°39′E Official language Vietnamese[1] Ethnic groups (2019) 85.32% Kinh Vietnamese 14.68% other[2] Religion (2019) 86.32% no religion / folk 6.1% Catholicism 4.79% Buddhism 1.02% Hoahaoism 1% Protestantism 0.58% Caodaism 0.07% Islam 0.12% other[2] [a] Demonym(s) Vietnamese Viet (colloquial) Government Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic[5] • General Secretary and President[b] Tô Lâm • Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính • National Assembly Chairman Trần Thanh Mẫn Legislature National Assembly Formation • Văn Lang 7th century BC • Âu Lạc 3rd century BC • Han's annexation 111 BC • Independence from China 939 • Regaining independence 1428 • Nguyễn's unification 1802 • Protectorate Treaty 25 August 1883 • Declaration of Independence 2 September 1945 • North–South division 21 July 1954 • End of Vietnam War 30 April 1975 • Reunification 2 July 1976 • Đổi Mới 18 December 1986 • Current constitution 28 November 2013[c] Area • Total 331,344.82[7][d] km2 (127,932.95 sq mi) (66th) • Water (%) 6.38 Population • 2023 estimate 100,300,000[10][11] (15th) • 2019 census 96,208,984[2] • Density 298/km2 (771.8/sq mi) (49th) GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate • Total Increase $1.559 trillion[12] (26th) • Per capita Increase $15,470[12] (106th) GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate • Total Increase $465.814 billion[12] (33th) • Per capita Increase $4,623[12] (119th) Gini (2020) Negative increase 36.8[13] medium inequality HDI (2022) Increase 0.726[14] high (107th) Currency Vietnamese đồng (₫) (VND) Time zone UTC+07:00 (Vietnam Standard Time) Drives on right Calling code +84 ISO 3166 code VN Internet TLD .vn This article contains Vietnamese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of chữ Nôm, chữ Hán and chữ Quốc ngữ. Vietnam,[e][f] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,[g] is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's fifteenth-most populous country. One of the two Marxist-Leninist states in Southeast Asia,[h] Vietnam shares land borders with China to the north, and Laos and Cambodia to the west. It shares maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia through the South China Sea. Its capital is Hanoi and its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (commonly known as Saigon). Vietnam was inhabited by the Paleolithic age, with states established in the first millennium BC on the Red River Delta in modern-day northern Vietnam. The Han dynasty annexed Northern and Central Vietnam under Chinese rule from 111 BC, until the first dynasty emerged in 939. Successive monarchical dynasties absorbed Chinese influences through Confucianism and Buddhism, and expanded southward to the Mekong Delta, conquering Champa. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was effectively divided into two domains of Đàng Trong and Đàng Ngoài. The Nguyễn—the last imperial dynasty—surrendered to France in 1883. In 1887, its territory was integrated into French Indochina as three separate regions. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, the nationalist coalition Viet Minh, led by the communist revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, launched the August Revolution and declared Vietnam's independence from the Empire of Japan in 1945. Vietnam went through prolonged warfare in the 20th century. After World War II, France returned to reclaim colonial power in the First Indochina War, from which Vietnam emerged victorious in 1954. As a result of the treaties signed between the Viet Minh and France, Vietnam was also separated into two parts. The Vietnam War began shortly after, between the communist North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, and the anti-communist South Vietnam, supported by the United States. Upon the North Vietnamese victory in 1975, Vietnam reunified as a unitary socialist state under the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in 1976. An ineffective planned economy, a trade embargo by the West, and wars with Cambodia and China crippled the country further. In 1986, the CPV initiated economic and political reforms similar to the Chinese economic reform, transforming the country to a socialist-oriented market economy. The reforms facilitated Vietnamese reintegration into the global economy and politics. Vietnam is a developing country with a lower-middle-income economy. It has high levels of corruption, censorship, environmental issues and a poor human rights record; the country ranks among the lowest in international measurements of civil liberties, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion and ethnic minorities. It is part of international and intergovernmental institutions including the ASEAN, the APEC, the CPTPP, the Non-Aligned Movement, the OIF, and the WTO. It has assumed a seat on the United Nations Security Council twice. Etymology Main article: Names of Vietnam The name Việt Nam (pronounced [viə̂tˀ nāːm], chữ Hán: 越南), literally "Viet South", means "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order or "South of the Viet" per Classical Chinese word order.[15] A variation of the name, Nanyue (or Nam Việt, 南越), was first documented in the 2nd century BC.[16] The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[17] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[18] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[18] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[17][18] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of southern China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue, Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet").[17][18][19] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[20] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves as người Việt (Viet people) or người Nam (southern people).[21] Người Việt 𠊛越 written in chữ Nôm The form Việt Nam (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558.[22] In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor refused because the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead,[i][24] meaning "South of the Viet" per Classical Chinese word order but the Vietnamese understood it as "Viet of the South" per Vietnamese word order.[15] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[i] It was revived in the early 20th century in Phan Bội Châu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ).[25] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when the imperial government in Huế adopted Việt Nam.[26] History Main article: History of Vietnam For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Vietnamese history. Prehistory and early history Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Stone artefacts excavated in Gia Lai province have been claimed to date to 780,000 years ago,[27] based on associated find of tektites, however this claim has been challenged because tektites are often found in archaeological sites of various ages in Vietnam.[28] Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.[29] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[30][31][32] Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have been found at Dong Can,[33] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[34][35] Lang Gao[36][37] and Lang Cuom.[38] Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archeological research.[39][40][41][42] By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of Đông Sơn culture,[43][44] notable for its bronze casting used to make elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.[45][46][47] At this point, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast Asia, throughout the first millennium BC.[46][48] Dynastic Vietnam For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Vietnam under Chinese rule. Đại Việt, Champa, Angkor Empire and their neighbours, late 13th century Vietnam's territories around 1838, during the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia According to Vietnamese legends, Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings first established in 2879 BC is considered the first state in the history of Vietnam (then known as Xích Quỷ and later Văn Lang).[49][50] In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán. He consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương.[51] In 179 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo ("Triệu Đà") defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue.[44] However, Nanyue was itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–Nanyue War.[24][52] For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained mostly under Chinese rule.[53][54] Early independence movements, such as those of the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu,[55] were temporarily successful,[56] though the region gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý dynasty between AD 544 and 602.[57][58][59] By the early 10th century, Northern Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the Khúc family.[60] In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the forces of the Chinese Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for Vietnam in 939 after a millennium of Chinese domination.[61][62][63] By the 960s, the dynastic Đại Việt (Great Viet) kingdom was established, Vietnamese society enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.[64][65] Meanwhile, the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism flourished and became the state religion.[63][66] Following the 1406–7 Ming–Hồ War, which overthrew the Hồ dynasty, Vietnamese independence was interrupted briefly by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê dynasty.[67] The Vietnamese polity reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).[68][69] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese polity expanded southward in a gradual process known as Nam tiến ("Southward expansion"),[70] eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Kingdom.[71][72][73] From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Dai Viet. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty's power.[74] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.[75] Vietnam was divided into North (Trịnh) and South (Nguyễn) from 1600 to 1777. During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.[71][73][76] The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Sơn brothers helped Trịnh to end Nguyễn, they also established new dynasty and ended Trịnh. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh. Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long.[76] French Indochina Main articles: Cochinchina campaign, Sino-French War, Tonkin campaign, and French Indochina In the 1500s, the Portuguese explored the Vietnamese coast and reportedly erected a stele on the Chàm Islands to mark their presence.[77] By 1533, they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China and Japan.[77] After they had settled in Macau and Nagasaki to begin the profitable Macau–Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in trade with Hội An.[77] Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries under the Padroado system were active in both Vietnamese realms of Đàng Trong (Cochinchina or Quinan) and Đàng Ngoài (Tonkin) in the 17th century.[78] The Dutch also tried to establish contact with Quinan in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after several violent encounters with the locals. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leaving Dejima in Japan to establish trade for silk.[79] Meanwhile, in 1613, the first English attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident involving the East India Company. By 1672 the English did establish relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside in Phố Hiến.[80] Capture of Saigon by Charles Rigault de Genouilly on 18 February 1859 Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.[81][82] The first French missionaries arrived in 1658, under the Portuguese Padroado. From its foundation, the Paris Foreign Missions Society under Propaganda Fide actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first in 1664 and Tonkin first in 1666.[83] Spanish Dominicans joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, and Franciscans were in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began[when?] to feel threatened by continuous Christianisation activities.[84] After several Catholic missionaries were detained, the French Navy intervened in 1843 to free them, as the kingdom was perceived as xenophobic.[85] In a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885, France eroded Vietnam's sovereignty.[86] At the siege of Tourane in 1858, France was aided by Spain (with Filipino, Latin American, and Spanish troops from the Philippines)[87] and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.[88] After the 1862 Treaty, and especially after France completely conquered Lower Cochinchina in 1867, the Văn Thân movement of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence against Catholics across central and northern Vietnam.[89] Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[90] By 1884, the entire country was under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[91][92] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[93] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values.[94] Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in Saigon, and in Hanoi, the colony's capital.[95] During the colonial period, guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement rebelled against French rule and massacred around a third of Vietnam's Christian population.[96][97] After a decade of resistance, they were defeated in the 1890s by the Catholics in reprisal for their earlier massacres.[98][99] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thái Nguyên uprising, was also suppressed heavily.[100] The French developed a plantation economy to promote export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee.[101] However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government. An increasing dissatisfaction, even led to half-hearted, badly co-ordinated, and still worsely executed plots to oust the French, like the infamous Hanoi Poison Plot of 1908. Photograph of the Grand Palais building in Hanoi The Grand Palais built for the 1902–1903 world's fair, when Hanoi became French Indochina's capital A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like Phan Bội Châu, Phan Châu Trinh, Phan Đình Phùng, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Hồ Chí Minh fighting or calling for independence.[102] This resulted in the 1930 Yên Bái mutiny by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny split the independence movement, as many leading members converted to communism.[103][104][105] The French maintained full control of their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards, the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while the pro-Vichy French colonial administration continued.[106][107] Japan exploited Vietnam's natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a full-scale takeover of the country in March 1945. This led to the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 which killed up to two million people.[108][109] First Indochina War Main articles: First Indochina War, Empire of Vietnam, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, and Operation Passage to Freedom In 1941, the Việt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on a communist ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh. The Việt Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation.[110][111] After the military defeat of Japan in World War II and the fall of its puppet government Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, Saigon's administrative services collapsed and chaos, riots, and murder were widespread.[112] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[111] In July 1945, the Allies had decided to divide Indochina at the 16th parallel to allow Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China to receive the Japanese surrender in the north while Britain's Lord Louis Mountbatten received their surrender in the south. The Allies agreed that Indochina still belonged to France.[113][114] Map showing the partition of French Indochina following the 1954 Geneva Conference Partition of French Indochina after the 1954 Geneva Conference But as the French were weakened by the German occupation, British-Indian forces and the remaining Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group were used to maintain order and help France reestablish control through the 1945–1946 War in Vietnam.[115] Hồ initially chose to take a moderate stance to avoid military conflict with France, asking the French to withdraw their colonial administrators and for French professors and engineers to help build a modern independent Vietnam.[111] But the Provisional Government of the French Republic did not act on these requests, including the idea of independence, and dispatched the French Far East Expeditionary Corps to restore colonial rule. This resulted in the Việt Minh launching a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.[110][111][116] The resulting First Indochina War lasted until July 1954. The defeat of French colonialists and Vietnamese loyalists in the 1954 battle of Điện Biên Phủ allowed Hồ to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequent Geneva Conference.[111][117] The colonial administration was thereby ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at the Demilitarised Zone, roughly along the 17th parallel north (pending elections scheduled for July 1956[j]). A 300-day period of free movement was permitted, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United States military through Operation Passage to Freedom.[122][123] The partition of Vietnam by the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after the elections.[124] But in 1955, the southern State of Vietnam's prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam.[124] This effectively replaced the internationally recognised State of Vietnam by the Republic of Vietnam in the south—supported by the United States, France, Laos, Republic of China and Thailand—and Hồ's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north, supported by the Soviet Union, Sweden,[125] Khmer Rouge, and the People's Republic of China.[124] Vietnam War Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War From 1953 to 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted agrarian reforms including "rent reduction" and "land reform", which resulted in significant political repression.[126] This included 13,500 to as many as 100,000 executions.[127][128] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political reeducation centres".[129][130] This program incarcerated many non-communists, but was successful at curtailing communist activity in the country, if only for a time.[131] The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by November 1957.[132] The pro-Hanoi Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign in South Vietnam in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government.[133] From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.[134][135][136] Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft pictured spraying Agent Orange Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft spraying Agent Orange during the Operation Ranch Hand as part of a herbicidal warfare operation depriving the food and vegetation cover of the Việt Cộng, c. 1962–1971 In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's Catholic regime erupted into mass demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown.[137] This led to the collapse of Diệm's relationship with the United States, and ultimately to a 1963 coup in which he and Nhu were assassinated.[138] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.[139] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[140] During this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States used the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident as a pretext for increasing its contribution of military advisers.[141] US forces became involved in ground combat operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.[142][143] The US also engaged in sustained aerial bombing. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.[134][135][144] Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along the Hồ Chí Minh trail, which passed through Laos.[145] The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 Tết Offensive. The campaign failed militarily, but shocked the American establishment and turned US public opinion against the war.[146] During the offensive, communist troops massacred over 3,000 civilians at Huế.[147][148] Facing an increasing casualty count, rising domestic opposition to the war, and growing international condemnation, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles in the early 1970s. This also entailed an unsuccessful effort to strengthen and stabilise South Vietnam.[149] Following the Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973.[150] In December 1974, North Vietnam captured the province of Phước Long and started a full-scale offensive, culminating in the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975.[151] South Vietnam was ruled by a provisional government for almost eight years while under North Vietnamese military occupation.[152] Reunification and reforms Further information: Re-education camp (Vietnam), Vietnamese boat people, and Đổi Mới On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[153] The war had devastated Vietnam and killed 966,000 to 3.8 million people.[154][155][156] A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimated nearly 1.4 million Vietnamese civilians were killed or wounded between 1965 and 1974—including 415,000 killed.[157][158] In its aftermath, under Lê Duẩn's administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears,[159] but up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.[160] The government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivisation of farms and factories.[161] Many fled the country following the conclusion of the war.[162] In 1978, in response to the Khmer Rouge government of Cambodia ordering massacres of Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts of An Giang and Kiên Giang,[163] the Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia and removed them from power after occupying Phnom Penh.[164] The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new, pro-Vietnam socialist government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea, which ruled until 1989.[165] However, this worsened relations with China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid, while mistrust of the Chinese government escalated.[166] At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.[167][168] The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[167] He and the reformers implemented a series of free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới ("Renovation") that carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[169][170] Although the authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.[170][171] Subsequently, Vietnam's economy achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also resulted in a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.[172][173][174] In 2021, General Secretary of the Communist Party, Nguyen Phu Trong, was re-elected for his third term in office, meaning he is Vietnam's most powerful leader in decades.[175] Geography Main article: Geography of Vietnam Images showing Hạ Long Bay, the Yến River and the Bản-Giốc Waterfalls Nature attractions in Vietnam, clockwise from top: Hạ Long Bay, Yến River, and Bản-Giốc Waterfalls Vietnam is located on the eastern Indochinese Peninsula between the latitudes 8° and 24°N, and the longitudes 102° and 110°E. It covers a total area of 331,210 km2 (127,881 sq mi)[176] or 331,699 km2 (128,070 sq mi).[177] The combined length of the country's land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.[178] At its narrowest point in the central Quảng Bình Province, the country is as little as 50 kilometres (31 mi) across, though it widens to around 600 kilometres (370 mi) in the north.[179] Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area,[180] and tropical forests cover around 42%.[181] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[182] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits.[183][184] The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.[185][186] The exclusive economic zone of Vietnam covers 417,663 km2 (161,261 sq mi) in the South China Sea.[187] Image of the Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range, the range that includes Fansipan which is the highest summit on the Indochinese Peninsula Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land.[188] The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.[189] Several minor earthquakes have been recorded.[190][191] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Fansipan (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located in Lào Cai Province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.[192] From north to south Vietnam, the country also has numerous islands; Phú Quốc is the largest.[193] The Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009. The Ba Bể Lake and Mekong River are the largest lake and longest river in the country.[194][195][196] Climate Main article: Climate of Vietnam An image of the Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam Photograph of Nha Trang beach with many high rise buildings behind it Nha Trang, a popular beach destination, has a tropical savanna climate. Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, Vietnam's climate tends to vary considerably for each region.[197] During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.[198] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (70 and 95 °F) over the year.[199] In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of the Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between 15 and 33 °C (59 and 91 °F).[199] Seasonal variations in the mountains, plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 3 °C (37 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (99 °F) in July and August.[200] During winter, snow occasionally falls over the highest peaks of the far northern mountains near the Chinese border.[201] Vietnam receives high rates of precipitation in the form of rainfall with an average amount from 1,500 to 2,000 mm (60 to 80 in) during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.[202] The country is also affected by tropical depressions, tropical storms and typhoons.[202] Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas.[203][204] Biodiversity Main articles: Wildlife of Vietnam, Environmental issues in Vietnam, List of endangered species in Vietnam, and Protected areas of Vietnam Photographs of Native species in Vietnam the crested argus; the red-shanked douc, a monkey; the Indochinese leopard and the saola, a bovine. Native species in Vietnam, clockwise from top-right: crested argus (a peafowl), red-shanked douc, Indochinese leopard, and saola As the country is located within the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity. This was noted in the country's National Environmental Condition Report in 2005.[205] It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10% are endemic. Vietnam's fauna includes 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. There are 840 birds and 310 mammals are found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.[205] Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites—the Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park—together with nine biosphere reserves, including Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau, and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.[206][207][208] Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.[205] In recent years, 13 genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.[205] Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered Edwards's pheasant.[209] In the late 1980s, a small population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.[210] In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve original cultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.[205] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 national parks.[205] Photograph of the Sa Pa mountain hills with agricultural activity shiwn in the foreground Sa Pa mountain hills with agricultural activities In Vietnam, wildlife poaching has become a major concern. In 2000, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) called Education for Nature – Vietnam was founded to instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.[211] In the years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their leaders' arrests.[211] A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export of rhinoceros horns from South Africa due to the demand for them as a medicine and a status symbol.[212][213] The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use of the chemical herbicide Agent Orange, which continues to cause birth defects and many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas affected most by the chemical's use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8 million Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects.[214][215][216] In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,[217] the US began a US$43 million joint clean-up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages.[215][218] Following the completion of the first phase in Đà Nẵng in late 2017,[219] the US announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site of Biên Hòa.[220] The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals.[221] In 2018, the Japanese engineering group Shimizu Corporation, working with Vietnamese military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant construction costs were funded by the company itself.[222][223] One of the long-term plans to restore southern Vietnam's damaged ecosystems is through the use of reforestation efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the war. It started by replanting mangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and in Cần Giờ outside Hồ Chí Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons.[224] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 104th globally out of 172 countries.[225] Apart from herbicide problems, arsenic in the ground water in the Mekong and Red River Deltas has also become a major concern.[226][227] And most notoriously, unexploded ordnances (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the long wars.[228] As part of the continuous campaign to demine/remove UXOs, several international bomb removal agencies from the United Kingdom,[229] Denmark,[230] South Korea[231] and the US[232] have been providing assistance. The Vietnam government spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and additional hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.[233] Panoramic view of Hạ Long Bay Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Government of Vietnam Vietnam is a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic, one of the two communist states (the other being Laos) in Southeast Asia.[234] Although Vietnam remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly capitalist,[235][236] with The Economist characterising its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists".[237] Under the constitution, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) asserts their role in all branches of the country's politics and society.[234] The president is the elected head of state and the commander-in-chief of the military, serving as the chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, and holds the second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state appointments and setting policy.[234] Tô Lâm Tô Lâm General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam and President Phạm Minh Chính Phạm Minh Chính Prime Minister Trần Thanh Mẫn Trần Thanh Mẫn Chairman of the National Assembly The general secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party's national organisation.[234] The prime minister is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties.[234] Photograph of the National Assembly of Vietnam in Hanoi The National Assembly of Vietnam building in Hanoi The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral state legislature composed of 500 members.[238] Headed by a chairman, it is superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being appointed from members of the National Assembly.[234] The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, headed by a chief justice, is the country's highest court of appeal, though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and many local courts. Military courts possess special jurisdiction in matters of state security. Vietnam maintains the death penalty for numerous offences.[239] In 2023, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam. President Võ Văn Thưởng,[240] Prime Minister Phạm Minh Chính (since 2021)[241] and the most powerful leader Nguyễn Phú Trọng (since 2011) as the Communist Party of Vietnam's General Secretary.[242] On 22 May 2024, Tô Lâm, who previously served as the Minister of Public Security, was voted as the president of Vietnam by the National Assembly after Võ Văn Thưởng resigned on the same year due to corruption charges against him.[243] On 3 August 2024, Tô Lâm, who is also serving as the president, was elected by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam as the general secretary following the death of Nguyễn Phú Trọng on 19 July 2024.[244][245] Administrative divisions Main article: Subdivisions of Vietnam Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (Vietnamese: Tỉnh, chữ Hán: 省).[246] There are also five municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which are administratively on the same level as provinces. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 * ** *** **** ***** ✱ ✱✱ Provinces of Vietnam Island areas: *-Bạch Long Vĩ Island (Haiphong Municipality [3]) **-Phú Quý Islands (Phú Quý district, Bình Thuận province [46]) ***-Côn Đảo Islands (Côn Đảo district, Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province [51]) ****-Phú Quốc Island (Phú Quốc City, Kiên Giang province [58]) *****-Thổ Chu Islands (Phú Quốc City, Kiên Giang province [58]) ✱-Paracel Islands (Hoàng Sa district, Đà Nẵng Municipality [4]) ✱✱-Spratly Islands (Trường Sa district, Khánh Hòa province [43]) Northwest 6. Điện Biên 22. Hòa Bình 7. Lai Châu 8. Lào Cai 16. Sơn La 12. Yên Bái Northeast 20. Bắc Giang 14. Bắc Kạn 10. Cao Bằng 9. Hà Giang 11. Lạng Sơn 17. Phú Thọ 21. Quảng Ninh 15. Thái Nguyên 13. Tuyên Quang Red River Delta 1. Hà Nội (municipality) 3. Hải Phòng (municipality) 19. Bắc Ninh 26. Hà Nam 24. Hải Dương 23. Hưng Yên 27. Nam Định 28. Ninh Bình 25. Thái Bình 18. Vĩnh Phúc North Central Coast 31. Hà Tĩnh 30. Nghệ An 32. Quảng Bình 33. Quảng Trị 29. Thanh Hóa 34. Thừa Thiên–Huế Central Highlands 41. Đắk Lắk 42. Đắk Nông 38. Gia Lai 37. Kon Tum 44. Lâm Đồng South Central Coast 4. Đà Nẵng (municipality) 39. Bình Định 46. Bình Thuận 43. Khánh Hòa 45. Ninh Thuận 40. Phú Yên 35. Quảng Nam 36. Quảng Ngãi Southeast 2. Hồ Chí Minh City (municipality) 51. Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu 49. Bình Dương 47. Bình Phước 50. Đồng Nai 48. Tây Ninh Mekong Delta 5. Cần Thơ (municipality) 56. An Giang 62. Bạc Liêu 55. Bến Tre 63. Cà Mau 53. Đồng Tháp 59. Hậu Giang 58. Kiên Giang 52. Long An 61. Sóc Trăng 54. Tiền Giang 60. Trà Vinh 57. Vĩnh Long A Tay Ho Communist propaganda poster A Communist Party poster in Hanoi Provinces are subdivided into provincial municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc tỉnh, 'city under province'), townships (thị xã) and counties (huyện), which are in turn subdivided into towns (thị trấn) or communes (xã). Centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided into districts (quận) and counties, which are further subdivided into wards (phường). Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Vietnam Trần Đại Quang and Vladimir Putin President Trần Đại Quang with Russian President Vladimir Putin on 19 November 2016 Secretary Tillerson at the Presidential Palace US Secretary of State Rex Tillerson accompanies US President Donald Trump to a commercial deal signing ceremony with Vietnamese President on 12 November 2017. Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.[247] Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with the Eastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with the Western Bloc.[247] Despite these differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem "Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "Bình Ngô đại cáo". Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,[247] significant territorial tensions remain between the two countries over the South China Sea.[248] Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including the United Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie), and World Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-governmental organisations.[249] As of 2010 Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.[250] Vietnam's current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well openness, diversification, multilateralisation with international relations.[251][252] The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative development projects.[170][251] Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to restore diplomatic ties with capitalist Western countries. It already had relations with communist Western countries in the decades prior.[253] Relations with the United States began improving in August 1995 with both states upgrading their liaison offices to embassy status.[254] As diplomatic ties between the two governments grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam opened its consulate in San Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand, which opened its embassy in Hanoi in 1995;[255] Vietnam established an embassy in Wellington in 2003.[256] President of the United States, Bill Clinton, made a historic visit to Vietnam in November 2000. He was the first U.S. leader ever to officially visit Hanoi and the first to visit Vietnam since U.S. troops withdrew from the country in 1975.[257] Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi in October 2000, with Vietnam reopening its embassy in Islamabad in December 2005 and trade office in Karachi in November 2005.[258][259] In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms embargo on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.[260] Despite their historical past, today Vietnam is considered to be a potential ally of the United States, especially in the geopolitical context of the territorial disputes in the South China Sea and in containment of Chinese expansionism.[261][262][263] Military Main article: Vietnam People's Armed Forces The Vietnam People's Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People's Army (VPA), the Vietnam People's Public Security and the Vietnam Self-Defence Militia. The VPA is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the Vietnam People's Ground Forces, the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force, the Vietnam Border Guard and the Vietnam Coast Guard. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.[264] In 2015, Vietnam's military expenditure totalled approximately US$4.4 billion, equivalent to around 8% of its total government spending.[265] Joint military exercises and war games have been held with Brunei,[266] India,[267] Japan,[268] Laos,[269] Russia,[270] Singapore[266] and the US.[271] In 2017, Vietnam signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[272][273] Human rights and sociopolitical issues See also: Human rights in Vietnam Under the current constitution, the CPV is the only party allowed to rule, the operation of all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press. In 2009, Vietnamese lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested and charged with the capital crime of subversion; several of his associates were also arrested.[274][275] Amnesty International described him and his arrested associates as prisoners of conscience.[274] Vietnam has also suffered from human trafficking and related issues.[276][277][278] Economy Main article: Economy of Vietnam Historical GDP per capita development of Vietnam Share of world GDP (PPP)[12] Year Share 1980 0.21% 1990 0.28% 2000 0.39% 2010 0.52% 2020 0.80% Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely on agriculture—primarily wet rice cultivation.[279] Bauxite, an important material in the production of aluminium, is mined in central Vietnam.[280] Since reunification, the country's economy is shaped primarily by the CPV through Five Year Plans decided upon at the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.[281] The collectivisation of farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Under strict state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency, corruption in state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.[282][283][284] With the decline in economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of the Eastern bloc in the late 1980s, and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the negative impacts of the post-war trade embargo imposed by the United States,[285][286] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by devaluing its exchange rate to increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development.[287] Photograph of Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, the Landmark 81, located in Bình Thạnh District in Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, the Landmark 81, located in Bình Thạnh, Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV introduced socialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program. Private ownership began to be encouraged in industry, commerce and agriculture and state enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints.[288][289] This led to the five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.[290] As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.[291][292] The United States ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.[293] Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis caused an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per year, its economy began to recover in 1999,[288] and grew at around 7% per year from 2000 to 2005, one of the fastest in the world.[294][295] On 11 January 2007, Vietnam became the 150th member of the WTO (World Trade Organization).[296] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong despite the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010. Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate reached 11.8% in December 2010 and the currency, the Vietnamese đồng, was devalued three times.[297][298] Deep poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India and the Philippines.[299] This decline can be attributed to equitable economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise of inequality.[300] These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of the Đổi Mới program, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.[301][302] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.[300][303] Manufacturing, information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Although Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m3/d).[304] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest crude petroleum producer in the Asia and Pacific region.[305] The US bought the biggest share of Vietnam's exports,[306] while goods from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.[307] Based on findings by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2022, the unemployment rate in Vietnam was 2.3%, the nominal GDP US$406.452 billion, and a nominal GDP per capita $4,086.[12][308] Besides the primary sector economy, tourism has contributed significantly to Vietnam's economic growth with 7.94 million foreign visitors recorded in 2015.[309] Agriculture Photograph of terraced rice fields in Sa Pa Terraced rice fields in Sa Pa As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of cashew nuts, with a one-third global share;[310] the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the world's market;[311] and the second-largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand since the 1990s.[312] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter of coffee.[313] The country has the highest proportion of land use for permanent crops together with other states in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[314] Other primary exports include tea, rubber and fishery products. Agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen. Seafood The overall fisheries production of Vietnam from capture fisheries and aquaculture was 5.6 million MT in 2011 and 6.7 million MT in 2016. The output of Vietnam's fisheries sector has seen strong growth, which could be attributed to the continued expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector.[315] Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in Vietnam Photograph of a TOPIO humanoid ping-pong-playing robot A Vietnamese-made TOPIO 3.0 humanoid ping-pong-playing robot displayed during the 2009 International Robot Exhibition (IREX) in Tokyo[316][317] In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology amounted to roughly 0.45% of its GDP.[318] Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered the applied mathematics field of global optimisation in the 20th century,[319] while Ngô Bảo Châu won the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms.[320][321] Since the establishment of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its first national space flight program especially after the completion of the infrastructure at the Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.[322][323] Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.[316][317] One of Vietnam's main messaging apps, Zalo, was developed by Vương Quang Khải, a Vietnamese hacker who later worked with the country's largest information technology service company, the FPT Group.[324] Vietnamese science students working on an experiment in their university lab. Vietnamese science students working on an experiment in their university lab According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to science research and development in 2011.[325] Vietnam was ranked 46th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, it has increased its ranking considerably since 2012, where it was ranked 76th.[326][327] Between 2005 and 2014, the number of Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.[328] Publications focus mainly on life sciences (22%), physics (13%) and engineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.[328] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Vietnam Photograph of Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a major tourist destination. Photo is Japanese Bridge. Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the nation, contributing 7.5% of the total GDP. Vietnam hosted roughly 13 million tourists in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world. The vast majority of the tourists in the country, some 9.7 million, came from Asia; namely China (4 million), South Korea (2.6 million), and Japan (798,119).[329] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe, with almost 1.9 million visitors in 2017; most European visitors came from Russia (574,164), followed by the United Kingdom (283,537), France (255,396), and Germany (199,872). Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).[329] The most visited destinations in Vietnam are the largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, with over 5.8 million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million and Hạ Long, including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the world.[330] Vietnam is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2018, Travel + Leisure ranked Hội An as one of the world's top 15 best destinations to visit.[331] Transport Main articles: Transport in Vietnam, Rail transport in Vietnam, and List of airports in Vietnam Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French colonial era when it was used to facilitate the transportation of raw materials to its main ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.[332] Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the commune level.[333] In 2010, Vietnam's road system had a total length of about 188,744 kilometres (117,280 mi) of which 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) are asphalt roads comprising national, provincial and district roads.[333] The length of the national road system is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its length paved. The provincial road system has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) of paved roads while 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) district roads are paved.[333] Photograph of Ho Chi Minh City's North-South Expressway HCMC–LT–DG section of the North–South Expressway Photograph of Tan Son Nhat International Airport Tan Son Nhat International Airport is the busiest airport in the country. Bicycles, motorcycles and motor scooters remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately owned cars has been increasing in recent years.[334] Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. Road accidents remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation with an average of 30 people losing their lives daily.[335] Traffic congestion is a growing problem in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growth of individual car ownership.[336][337] Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).[338] From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thái Nguyên, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway—shinkansen (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.[339] Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.[340] The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres (960 mi)-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels.[341][342] The trains will travel at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.[342][343] Plans for the high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government decided to prioritise the development of both the Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City metros and expand road networks instead.[338][344][345] Photograph if a crane at the Port of Hai Phong The port of Hai Phong is one of the largest and busiest container ports in Vietnam. Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Đà Nẵng and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the country's largest airport handling the majority of international passenger traffic.[346] According to a government-approved plan, Vietnam will have another seven international airports by 2025, including Vinh International Airport, Phu Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, Phu Quoc International Airport, Cat Bi International Airport, Can Tho International Airport, and Long Thanh International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.[347] Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 86 passenger aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020.[348] Several private airlines also operate in Vietnam, including Air Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air. As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including Cam Ranh, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, Hạ Long, Qui Nhơn, Vũng Tàu, Cửa Lò and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country's extensive network of rivers plays a key role in rural transportation with over 47,130 kilometres (29,290 mi) of navigable waterways carrying ferries, barges and water taxis.[349] Energy Main articles: Energy in Vietnam and List of power stations in Vietnam Photograph of the Son La Dam Sơn La Dam in northern Vietnam, the largest hydroelectric dam in Southeast Asia[350] Vietnam's energy sector is dominated largely by the state-controlled Vietnam Electricity Group (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country's power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884 MW.[351] Other energy sources are PetroVietnam (4,435 MW), Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW from build–operate–transfer (BOT) investors.[352] Most of Vietnam's power is generated by either hydropower or fossil fuel power such as coal, oil and gas, while diesel, small hydropower and renewable energy supplies the remainder.[352] The Vietnamese government had planned to develop a nuclear reactor as the path to establish another source for electricity from nuclear power. The plan was abandoned in late 2016 when a majority of the National Assembly voted to oppose the project due to widespread public concern over radioactive contamination.[353] The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls nearly 70% of the country's domestic market for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[354] Since 2011, the company also operates five renewable energy power plants including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).[355] According to statistics from British Petroleum (BP), Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that have proven crude oil reserves. In 2015 the reserve was approximately 4.4 billion barrels ranking Vietnam first place in Southeast Asia, while the proven gas reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic metres (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia after Indonesia and Malaysia.[356] Telecommunication Main article: Telecommunications in Vietnam Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (now the VNPT Group) which is a state-owned company.[357] The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military Electronic and Telecommunication Company (Viettel, which is wholly owned by the Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT.[357] VNPT's monopoly was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree.[358] By 2012, the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel, Vinaphone and MobiFone. The remaining companies included: EVNTelecom, Vietnammobile and S-Fone.[359] With the shift towards a more market-orientated economy, Vietnam's telecommunications market is continuously being reformed to attract foreign investment, which includes the supply of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure.[360] Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam Stream flowing down a hill with a bridge crossing it In rural areas of Vietnam, piped water systems are operated by a wide variety of institutions including a national organisation, people committees (local government), community groups, co-operatives and private companies. Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310 billion m³. The rainy season accounts for 70% of the year's discharge.[361] Most of the country's urban water supply systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population with about one third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.[362] There is also concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems. Most industrial factories release their untreated wastewater directly into the water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue, most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and pollutes the surface water.[362] In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducing water filtration systems. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as the high levels of arsenic in groundwater sources.[363] The government of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related sectors including water treatment projects.[364][365][366] Regarding sanitation, 78% of Vietnam's population has access to "improved" sanitation—94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population. However, there are still about 21 million people in the country lacking access to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.[367] In 2018, the construction ministry said the country's water supply, and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods and information technology (IT) to sanitation issues but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution.[368] The health ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice, since there have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water supplies as well unhygienic conditions reported every year.[369] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Vietnam, Vietnamese people, and Ethnic groups in Vietnam Vietnam population pyramid in 2019 Ethnic groups of Vietnam[370] Vietnamese (85.32%) Other (14.68%) As of 2021, the population of Vietnam stands at approximately 97.5 million people.[371] The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.[372] According to the 2019 census, the country's population was 96,208,984.[2] Based on the 2019 census, 65.6% of the Vietnamese population live in rural areas while only 34.4% live in urban areas. The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased which is attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation.[2] The dominant Viet or Kinh ethnic group constitute 82,085,826 people or 85.32% of the population.[2] Most of their population is concentrated in the country's alluvial deltas and coastal plains. As a majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.[370] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to various ethnic groups, of which 54 are officially recognised, including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thái and Nùng.[373] Many ethnic minorities such as the Muong, who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory.[374] Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (including more than 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.[375][376] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.[370][377] Throughout Vietnam's history, many Chinese people, largely from South China, migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees.[378] Since the reunification in 1976, an increase of communist policies nationwide resulted in the nationalisation and confiscation of property especially from the Hoa in the south and the wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam.[379][380] Urbanisation See also: List of cities in Vietnam Ho Chi Minh City's District 1 skyline photographed at night District 1, Ho Chi Minh City The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2019 is 33,122,548 people (with the urbanisation rate at 34.4%).[2] Since 1986, Vietnam's urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic program, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.[381] The Vietnamese government, through its construction ministry, forecasts the country will have a 45% urbanisation rate by 2020 although it was confirmed to only be 34.4% according to the 2019 census.[2] Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth rate.[382] Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country's Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities.[383] A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam's GDP; in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%.[384] In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of Vietnam's GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services which increase people's standards of living. Access to electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.[384] In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies shows that only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in 2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and water pollution.[384] Many Vietnamese use mopeds for transportation, since they are relatively cheap and easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from 0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.[384] With rapid development, factories have sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water, for example in the 2016 Vietnam marine life disaster.[385] The government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has introduced more regulations for waste handling. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government's efforts includes attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sort household waste, since waste sorting is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.[386] vte Largest cities and municipalities in Vietnam Source: 2019 Vietnamese census,[387] National Assembly[note 1] Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. Ho Chi Minh City Ho Chi Minh City Hanoi Hanoi 1 Ho Chi Minh City Municipality 8,993,082 11 Tân Uyên Bình Dương 466,053 Haiphong Haiphong Cần Thơ Cần Thơ 2 Hanoi Municipality 8,053,663 12 Nha Trang Khánh Hòa 422,601 3 Haiphong Municipality 2,028,514 13 Dĩ An Bình Dương 403,760 4 Cần Thơ Municipality 1,235,171 14 Buôn Ma Thuột Đắk Lắk 375,590 5 Da Nang Municipality 1,134,310 15 Thanh Hóa Thanh Hóa 359,910 6 Biên Hòa Đồng Nai 1,055,414 16 Vũng Tàu Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu 357,124 7 Thủ Đức Ho Chi Minh City 1,013,795 17 Bến Cát Bình Dương 355,663 8 Huế Thừa Thiên Huế 652,572 18 Thái Nguyên Thái Nguyên 340,403 9 Thuận An Bình Dương 508,433 19 Vinh Nghệ An 339,114 10 Hải Dương Hải Dương 508,190 20 Thủ Dầu Một Bình Dương 321,607 Some cities were established or expanded after the 2019 census was conducted, including Thủ Đức,[388] Huế,[389] Thuận An,[390] Hải Dương,[391] Dĩ An,[390] and Hạ Long.[392] Languages The national language of the country is Vietnamese, a tonal Austroasiatic language (Mon–Khmer), which is spoken by the majority of the population. Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages, including: Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng and Hmong. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct languages, some belonging to the Austroasiatic and others to the Malayo-Polynesian language families.[393] In recent years, a number of sign languages have developed in the major cities. A sample of traditional Vietnamese calligraphy Vietnamese calligraphy in Latin alphabet The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among those educated in the former South Vietnam, where it was a principal language in administration, education and commerce.[394] Vietnam remains a full member of the International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education has revived some interest in the language.[395] Russian, and to a lesser extent German, Czech and Polish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.[396] With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.[397][398] The popularity of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin Chinese have also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.[399][400][401] Third-graders can choose one of seven languages (English, Russian, French, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, German) as their first foreign language.[402][403][404] In Vietnam's high school graduation examinations, students can take their foreign language exam in one of the above-mentioned languages.[405] Religion Main article: Religion in Vietnam Religion in Vietnam (2019)[2] Vietnamese folk religion or no religion (86.32%) Buddhism (4.79%) Catholicism (6.1%) Protestantism (1.0%) Hoahaoism (1.02%) Caodaism (0.58%) Islam (0.07%) Others (0.12%) Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy freedom of belief and religion.[406] All religions are equal before the law and each place of worship is protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.[406][407] According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese people did not believe in a god.[408] Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.[409] The official statistics, presented by the Vietnamese government to the United Nations special rapporteur in 2014, indicate the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million of a total population of almost 90 million.[410] According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam in 2019, Buddhists account for 4.79% of the total population, Catholics 6.1%, Protestants 1.0%, Hoahao Buddhists 1.02%, and Caodaism followers 0.58%.[2] Other religions includes Islam, Bahaʼís and Hinduism, representing less than 0.2% of the population. The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organised religion, though many of them observe some form of Vietnamese folk religion. Confucianism as a system of social and ethical philosophy still has certain influences in modern Vietnam. Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism, while Theravāda is practised mostly by the Khmer minority. About 8 to 9% of the population is Christian—made up of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century and was firmly established by Jesuits missionaries (mainly Portuguese and Italian) in the 17th centuries from nearby Portuguese Macau.[78] French missionaries (from the Paris Foreign Missions Society) together with Spanish missionaries (from the Dominican Order of the neighbouring Spanish East Indies) actively sought converts in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century.[411][412][413] A significant number of Vietnamese people, especially in the South, are also adherents of two indigenous religions of syncretic Caodaism and quasi-Buddhist Hoahaoism.[414] Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries in the 20th century;[415] the largest Protestant denomination is the Evangelical Church of Vietnam. Around 770,000 of the country's Protestants are members of ethnic minorities,[415] particularly the highland Montagnards[416] and Hmong people. Although it is one of the country's minority religions, Protestantism is the fastest-growing religion in Vietnam, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.[415][417] Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these include: Bani, Sunni and non-denominational sections of Islam which is practised primarily among the ethnic Cham minority.[418] There are also a few Kinh adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha'i, as well as Hindus among the Cham's.[419][420] Education Main article: Education in Vietnam Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the national literacy rate, which stood at 90% in 2008.[421] Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the country's education system continuously undergoing a series of reforms by the government. Basic education in the country is relatively free for the poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children without some form of public or private assistance.[422] Regardless, Vietnam's school enrolment is among the highest in the world.[423][424] The number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well the burden on students to repay them.[425][426]Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.[427] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including Harvard University (United States) and the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial control is in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in education especially for the poor to have access to basic education.[428] Health Main article: Health in Vietnam Development of life expectancy in Vietnam since 1950 By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.[429] In 2016, Vietnam's national life expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and the infant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.[430][431][432] Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to the hamlet level.[433] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.[174] In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the introduction of charges.[301] Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of nurses, midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report of Vietnamese Health Ministry.[434] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the US military during the war left tangible, long-term impacts upon the Vietnamese people that persist in the country today.[435][436] For instance, it led to three million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of Vietnam's land being defoliated.[437] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria. The malaria mortality rate fell to about five per cent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.[438] Tuberculosis (TB) cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in the country after respiratory-related illness.[439] With an intensified vaccination program, better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and new TB infections.[440] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15% of health care expenses.[441] That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be one of 15 states to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.[442] By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); 9,554 have died.[443] The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average between 40 and 50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV and the figure has remained stable since 2005.[444] More global aid is being delivered through The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the disease in the country.[440] In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eating dog and cat meat as it can cause diseases like rabies and leptospirosis. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among Vietnamese on social media, though some noted that the consumption of dog meat will remain an ingrained habit among many people.[445] Culture Main article: Culture of Vietnam The Temple of Literature in Hanoi The Temple of Literature in Hanoi The Meridian Gate (Huế) The Imperial City of Huế The Municipal Theatre in Ho Chi Minh City The Municipal Theatre (Saigon Opera House) in Ho Chi Minh City Vietnamese culture is considered part of Sinosphere. Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Đông Sơn culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.[43][46] Some elements of the nation's culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, and Taoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.[446][447] Vietnamese society is structured around làng (ancestral villages);[448] all Vietnamese mark a common ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.[449][450] The influence of Chinese culture such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien, and Hainanese cultures is more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.[451] Despite this, there are Chinatowns in the south, such as in Chợ Lớn, where many Chinese have intermarried with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them.[452] In the central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa and Khmer culture are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the successor of the ancient Sa Huỳnh culture.[453][454] In recent centuries, Western cultures have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese.[447] Photograph of two girls wearing a traditional Vietnamese white school uniform, the áo dài—both are holding the nón lá, a conical hat Vietnamese traditional white school uniform for girls in the country, the áo dài with the addition of nón lá, a conical hat The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa) in which family and community values are highly regarded.[451] Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,[455] such as the Vietnamese dragon which is derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam's national father, Lạc Long Quân is depicted as a holy dragon.[449][456][457] The lạc is a holy bird representing Vietnam's national mother Âu Cơ. Other prominent images that are also revered are the turtle, buffalo and horse.[458] Many Vietnamese also believe in the supernatural and spiritualism where illness can be brought on by a curse or sorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical practitioners, amulets and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may be employed to treat the ill person.[459] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs.[447] For many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media.[460] The main Vietnamese formal dress, the áo dài is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include: the áo tứ thân, a four-piece woman's dress; the áo ngũ, a form of the thân in five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman's undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women; the áo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the áo the, a variant of the áo gấm worn by grooms at weddings.[461][462] Traditional headwear includes the standard conical nón lá, the "lampshade-like" nón quai thao, and the traditional turban, khăn vấn.[462][463] In tourism, a number of popular cultural tourist destinations include the former Imperial City of Huế, the World Heritage Sites of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Hội An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the Marble Mountains.[464][465] Literature Main articles: Vietnamese literature, Vietnamese poetry, Vietnamese mythology, and Vietnamese fairy tales A scroll showing a Vietnamese dragon Vietnamese dragon on Emperor Vĩnh Hựu's c. 1736 edict conferring a title Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition of folk literature based on the typical six–to-eight-verse poetic form (lục bát) called ca dao which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[466] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th century Ngô dynasty, with notable ancient authors including: Nguyễn Trãi, Hồ Xuân Hương, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nói in ca trù.[467] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the tao đàn. Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the first literary transformation movement of thơ mới emerging in 1932.[468] Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally, and has unknown authors. Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.[469] They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ), culture heroes (Sơn Tinh and Thủy Tinh) which are referred to as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.[452][470] Music Main article: Music of Vietnam Three musicians are performing on a stage. Ca trù trio performance in northern Vietnam Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions.[471] Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical opera (tuồng) can be traced to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.[472] Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by the Chinese musical tradition along with those of Japan, Korea and Mongolia.[473] Nhã nhạc is the most popular form of imperial court music, Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical theatre, while Xẩm or hát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamese folk music. Quan họ (alternate singing) is popular in the former Hà Bắc Province (which is now divided into Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang Provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music called Hát chầu văn or hát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. Nhạc dân tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamese folk music which arose in the 1950s, while ca trù (also known as hát ả đào) is a popular folk music. Hò can be thought of as the southern style of Quan họ. There is a range of traditional instruments, including the đàn bầu (a monochord zither), the đàn gáo (a two-stringed fiddle with coconut body), and the đàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moon lute). In recent times, there have been some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing styles.[474] Bolero music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.[475] In the 21st century, the modern Vietnamese pop music industry known as V-pop incorporates elements of many popular genres worldwide, such as electronic, dance and R&B.[476][477] Media Main article: Media of Vietnam Shown is the logo of the state broadcaster Vietnam Television. Vietnam Television (VTV), the main state television station Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on Publication.[478] It is generally perceived that the country's media sector is controlled by the government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.[479][480] The Voice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, while Vietnam Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has regulated public internet access extensively using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[481] The collaborative project OpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",[482] while Reporters Without Borders (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".[483] Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked.[484] Cuisine Main article: Vietnamese cuisine Photographs of a phở noodle dish, a chè thái fruit dessert, a chả giò spring roll and a bánh mì sandwich Some of the notable Vietnamese cuisine, clockwise from top-right: phở noodle, chè fruit dessert, chả giò spring roll, and bánh mì sandwich Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste "elements" (Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), salty (water), bitter (fire) and sweet (earth).[485] Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use: lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chilli, lime and basil leaves.[486] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables; it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.[487] The use of meats such as pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater fish, crustaceans (particularly crabs), and molluscs became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. Vietnam has a strong street food culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the country.[488] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as gỏi cuốn (salad roll), bánh cuốn (rice noodle roll), bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) and phở noodles originated in the north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.[489][490] Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.[491] Black pepper is frequently used in place of chillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south also are usually served cold with ice cubes, especially during the annual hot seasons; in contrast, in the north hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include cà phê đá (Vietnamese iced coffee), cà phê trứng (egg coffee), chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice), cơm rượu (glutinous rice wine), nước mía (sugarcane juice) and trà sen (Vietnamese lotus tea).[492] Holidays and festivals Main articles: Public holidays in Vietnam and List of traditional festivals in Vietnam A large round white fabric band decorated with red figures and images for Tết Special Tết decoration in the country seen during the holiday The country has eleven national recognised holidays. These include: New Year's Day on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year (Tết Nguyên Đán) from the last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the first lunar month; Hùng Kings' Festival on the 10th day of the third lunar month; Reunification Day on 30 April; International Workers' Day on 1 May; and National Day on 2 September.[493][494][495] During Tết, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead ancestors.[496][497] Older people will usually give the young a lì xì (red envelope) while special holiday food, such as bánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety of dried fruits, are presented in the house for visitors.[498] Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons, including the Tết Nguyên Tiêu, Tết Trung Thu and various temple and nature festivals.[499] In the highlands, Elephant Race Festivals are held annually during the spring; riders will ride their elephants for about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) and the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.[500] Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular.[501] Sports Main articles: Sport in Vietnam and List of Vietnamese traditional games Mỹ Đình National Stadium in Hanoi The Vovinam, Kim Kê and Võ Bình Định are widespread in Vietnam,[502][503] while football is the country's most popular sport.[504] Its national team won the ASEAN Football Championship twice in 2008 and 2018 and reached the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, quarter-finals of 2019 AFC Asian Cup,[505][506][507] its junior team of under-23 became the runners-up of 2018 AFC U-23 Championship and reached fourth place in 2018 Asian Games, while the under-20 managed to qualify the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup for the first time in their football history. And the under-17 achieved the fourth place per 10 Teams of the 2000 AFC U-16 Championship.[508][509] The women's national football team had first appearance at the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2023, became the first 11-a-side national football team to participate in a World Cup tournament, and also traditionally dominates the Southeast Asian Games, along with its chief rival, Thailand. Other Western sports such as badminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, attending every Summer Olympics from 1988 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979.[510] Vietnam has never participated in the Winter Olympic Games. In 2016, Vietnam won their first gold medal at the Olympics.[511] Basketball has become an increasingly popular sport in Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Sóc Trăng.[512] See also Index of Vietnam-related articles Outline of Vietnam Notes The census data was also cited in the United States Department of State's 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom regarding Vietnam. However, the report indicated that this figure did not include the potentially significant number of individuals who engage in Buddhist practices to a certain extent without being formally participated in a Buddhist religious group.[3] An earlier United States Department of State report from 2019 revealed that 26.4 percent of the population identified with an organized religion. This breakdown included 14.9 percent identifying as Buddhist, 7.4 percent as Roman Catholic, 1.5 percent as Hoa Hao Buddhist, 1.2 percent as Cao Dai, and 1.1 percent as Protestant. The remainder did not identify with any religious group or observed beliefs such as animism or the reverence of ancestors, tutelary and protective saints, national heroes, or esteemed local figures.[4] The most powerful political position is General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, not President. The general secretary controls the Politburo and the Secretariat, Vietnam's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder the de facto leader of Vietnam. In effect since 1 January 2014[6] The area of Vietnam mentioned here is based on the land area statistics provided by the Vietnamese government. However, alternative figures exist. According to the CIA World Factbook, Vietnam's total area is 331,210 square kilometers,[8] while the BBC cites a slightly different measurement of 331,699 square kilometers.[9] Vietnamese: Việt Nam [vîət nāːm] ⓘ The spelling "Viet Nam" or the full Vietnamese form "Việt Nam" is sometimes used in English by local and government-operated media. "Viet Nam" is, in fact, formally designated and recognized by the Government of Vietnam, the United Nations and the International Organization for Standardization as the standardized country name. See also other spellings. Alternatively the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam with a different spelling The other one being Laos At first, Gia Long requested the name "Nam Việt", but the Jiaqing Emperor refused.[16][23] Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. 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Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021. Free content This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 , 713–714, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing. Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from "(U.S. Relations With Vietnam)". U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets. United States Department of State. External links Vietnam at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage Vietnam profile from BBC News Vietnam. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 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Category Asia portal Portals: icon Asia flag Vietnam Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata International ISNI 2VIAFFASTWorldCat National GermanyUnited StatesFranceBnF dataJapan 2AustraliaCzech RepublicSpainSwedenIsrael Geographic MusicBrainz area People UK Parliament Other IdRefHistorical Dictionary of SwitzerlandNARAEncyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Categories: 1976 establishments in VietnamCommunist statesCountries in AsiaMember states of ASEANMember states of the United NationsOne-party statesRepublicsSoutheast Asian countriesStates and territories established in 1976Vietnam List of Vietnam War films Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article lists notable films related to the Vietnam War. Post-war films After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, there was an increase in American films that were more "raw,” containing actual battle footage. A FilmReference.com article noted that American filmmakers "appeared more confident to put Vietnam combat on screen for the first time" during that era.[1] These American post-war film representations have generally been more realistic and gritty, such as The Deer Hunter (1978) and Apocalypse Now (1979).[1] There were several broad stereotypes about American Vietnam veterans. One stereotype was thinly disguised versions of the real Lieutenant William Calley, notorious as the officer responsible for the My Lai massacre of 1968, the so-called "psycho vets” who were portrayed as bloodthirsty psychopaths who wreak havoc upon their return to the United States.[2] Such portrayals of the "psycho vet,” while acknowledging atrocities in Vietnam, most notably blamed the atrocities upon one deranged individual, suggesting that the atrocities, at least by Americans, were aberrations in the war. Films that portrayed the "psycho vet" archetype mostly took place in the United States and the victims of the "psycho vet" were usually his fellow Americans rather than the Vietnamese.[2] (B-movies that feature Vietnam veterans with an emphasis on action, violence, and revenge, belong into the exploitation subgenre called "vetsploitation."[3]) A more popular stereotype was the "wounded veteran,” a veteran who was always psychologically and sometimes physically traumatized by the war.[2] The character of Nick Chevotarevich in The Deer Hunter, a once promising young man who as a result of his war experiences is reduced to obsessively and hopelessly playing Russian roulette for the amusement of sadistic Vietnamese gamblers in Saigon, despite the manifest dangers to himself, is one of the best known examples of the "wounded vet" stereotype.[4] Chevotarevich was drafted into the Army in 1968 and throughout the film is portrayed as a victim, a man who was just incapable of overcoming the damage done to his soul by the war.[5] Another example of the "wounded vet" archetype was the embittered and paralyzed veteran Luke Martin in the 1978 film Coming Home, whose suffering is redeemed by his winning the love of a good woman, Sally Hyde, the wife of a Marine.[5] The British scholar Eben Muse noted in contrast to Luke, Sally's husband, Bob Hyde, is portrayed as a killer who enjoys the war and commits suicide after the war ends, suggesting veterans "...may either be an innocent or a killer, but not both.”[5] Another stereotype was that of "the innocent,” which portrayed the war as a sort of ghastly coming-of-age ritual for young American men who, provided that they survived, became real men.[6] An example of the "innocent" stereotype is the character of Chris in the 1986 film Platoon. [5] Chris is a naïve and innocent young man who joins the Army in 1967 out of a sense of patrotism.[5] At the beginning of the film, Chris can barely take care of himself; by the end of the film, Chris is no longer an innocent, and has become a man.[5] Although Chris has lost his innocence, the film suggests that this is a necessary part of growing up to become a man.[6] Another example of the "innocent" stereotype was in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket, where a young man, J.T. Davis, aka "Joker," joins the Marine Corps in 1966.[5] The first half of the film concerns training at Parris island, where an inept and overweight trainee, Leonard Lawrence, is brutally bullied, humiliated and hazed until he snaps, murders the drill sergeant, and then commits suicide.[5] The second half of the film is set in the Battle of Hue in 1968, where the Marines fight to retake Hue, and the film climaxes with an extended scene where an unseen Viet Cong sniper kills a number of men in the Marine squad Joker is attached to.[5] The film ends with Joker coldly executing the sniper, a badly wounded woman who begs for mercy.[5] Joker in his closing narration notes that he has finally become a Marine and hence a man. Muse noted that both stories in Full Metal Jacket that made up Joker's quest were full of repulsive elements and imagery, but argued the film justifies the brutality of these stories.[5] Lawrence, bearing a "disgusting fatboy” label, "clearly needed some sense beaten into him,” even if the methods employed against him were excessive, while the female Viet Cong sniper had just killed a number of men in Joker's squad and her execution might be seen as a mercy killing as she was unlikely to survive her wounds.[5] Another stereotype was that of the "warrior" who finds his purpose in the Vietnam war despite all of its dangers and horrors.[7] The films featuring the "warrior" tended to be set in what Muse called the "land of Nam,” a "romance wasteland" portrayed in the films that was different from the real country of Vietnam.[8] Muse wrote: "These movies portray the Land of Nam as a cruel, brutal landscape, littered with mutilated bodies and booby-traps, a place where even the women are rigged with explosives. It is a land in which no limits are placed upon aggression or violence unless by the individual soldier...In the Land of Nam, the soldier can learn to control his base nature, gain the "innocence that changes;" but he can fail to do so and become another Lieutenant Calley. The Land of Nam is a proving ground for the masculine self."[7] Muse wrote that the films set in the "land of Nam" were not really about the Vietnam war per se, but rather were about struggles to define American masculinity with the Vietnam war just providing an exotic settling for these tests of masculinity."[9] Because the Vietnam war was a lost war for the United States, the war is remembered in America as an especially awful conflict where the sufferings and losses were not redeemed by victory in the end as was the case with World War Two. In the 1980s, a popular genre of Vietnam-related films was revenge fantasies that featured a Vietnam veteran or veterans returning to Vietnam to vanquish the Vietnamese, of which the most popular was the 1985 film Rambo: First Blood Part II.[10] The American historian John Hellman noted that such revenge fantasies were an American version of the stab-in-the-back myth (that Germany actually won World War I, but was "stabbed in the back" in 1918), minus the anti-Semitism of the original myth.[10] In Rambo, brave soldiers such as the fictional character John Rambo were portrayed as more than capable of winning the war as Rambo is portrayed as killing hundreds of Vietnamese single-handedly and also takes out an entire Soviet Spetsnaz squad, but were "stabbed in the back" by spineless politicians who were incapable of standing up to an alleged leftist-dominated and "anti-American" media.[10] Although Rambo is set in 1985, the film's message is that the Vietnam war was a war that the United States could, should and would had won had it not been for the "stab-in-the-back" by American leftists.[10] Reinforcing the film's pro-war message is the portrayal of the relationship between the Soviet characters and the Vietnamese characters as the latter are portrayed as clearly subordinate to the former, suggesting that Communist Vietnam is a sort of Soviet colony, and the claim made during the war that the North Vietnamese were just Soviet puppets was indeed correct.[11] At one point in the film, a character says that Vietnam is "hell", but that this "hell" is "home" to Rambo.[7] Muse noted that the connection made in the film between masculinity and militarism as Rambo's efficiency as a soldier marks him out as an especially noble example of American masculinity who flourishes in the "hell" that is Vietnam.[11] The American scholar Gina Marchetti noted a tendency for American films and television when dealing with the Bụi đời children to "annihilate the mothers". Marchetti wrote in nearly all American productions, the Vietnamese mothers of these children are either dead or ended up dying while the exclusive responsibility of raising these children falls upon their American fathers, who were almost always white men.[12] Marchetti wrote that "...these narratives allow their American heroes another opportunity to fight the Vietnam war and win this time, by staking a patriarchal blood claim to Vietnam's children. The absorption of the Amerasian children of war into America argues against any residual charge of American racism, cruelty or heartlessness".[13] Marchetti wrote that the domestic dramas dealing with the war's aftermath often used the story of the "boat people", the mainly ethnic Chinese refugees who fled Vietnam following the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese war, which led to a violent anti-Chinese mood in Vietnam, as a way of proving the justice of the Vietnam war.[14] In Vietnam, like all of the other nations of Southeast Asia, the huaren (ethnic Chinese) made up a disproportionate number of the middle-class people, and were widely disliked for their success in business and the professions. When Vietnam's ancient archenemy China invaded in February 1979, anti-Chinese feelings in Vietnam boiled over, leading to the mass exodus of Vietnam's huaren who fled across the South China Sea in makeshift boats, hence the term "boat people." The picture presented of the "boat people" in American films was of grateful refugees coming to live the American Dream.[15] Marchetti wrote: "However, these dramas do not deal with the real problems of the Indochinese diaspora...Ironically, these stories do not use the Vietnamese refugee as a central protagonist. Rather, the American "white knight" war veteran, victimized by some unspeakable angst, linked to his involvement in the war, becomes the central hero of the tale."[15] Marchetti wrote that these narratives, by focusing on doomed interracial romances between the American "white knight" and Vietnamese women, served to both justify the war and to present the problems of the war's legacy as being more solvable as these stories almost end with the Bụi đời children coming to America to live a better life.[16] In the 1985 film The Lady from Yesterday, the protagonist is not the Vietnamese refugee of the film's title, but rather her former American lover, Craig Weston, a Vietnam veteran turned wealthy executive.[17] Craig is married to the daughter of his overbearing boss, Jim, who bullies him and is portrayed as having borderline incestuous feelings for his daughter.[18] In contrast to Craig's controlling wife, Janet, Craig's Vietnamese lover Lien who has arrived in Texas as a boat person refugee together with her son by Craig, is portrayed as the "Lotus Blossom" archetype, namely the submissive, frail, docile and highly eroticized Asian beauty.[19] With Lien's encouragement, Craig becomes the warrior he was once was in Vietnam and he learns to stand up to both wife and his father-in-law.[20] Although the film strongly suggests that Craig might actually be happier with Lien rather than with Janet, in the end, Lien conveniently dies, allowing Craig to go back to his white wife who adopts Craig's son by Lien.[21] Marchetti described The Lady From Yesterday as a modern reworking of Madame Butterfly, where a white man has a passionate romance with a Lotus Blossom character, who dies in order to allow him to marry or stay married to a white woman.[22] Theatrical films about the Vietnam War Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1964 US A Yank in Viet-Nam Marshall Thompson A USMC pilot is shot down, but meets a female guerrilla; filmed in South Vietnam. 1966 US To the Shores of Hell Will Zens A USMC officer leads a rescue attempt of his brother who is held prisoner by the Viet Cong. 1968 US The Green Berets John Wayne, Ray Kellogg A tribute to U.S. Special Forces, starring John Wayne, filmed mostly in Georgia.[23] 1970 US The Losers Jack Starrett An American motorcycle gang is recruited for a mission into Cambodia. 1970 West Germany o.k. Michael Verhoeven Based on the Incident on Hill 192. An American patrol torture and kill a Vietnamese girl. 1971 South Vietnam Người tình không chân dung Hoàng Vĩnh Lộc 1971 South Vietnam Chân trời tím (phim) Lê Hoàng Hoa 1972 South Vietnam Người cô đơn Hoàng Thi Thơ 1972 US The Visitors Elia Kazan A story of a Vietnam War veteran who is confronted by two other members of his platoon. 1972 North Vietnam Vĩ tuyến 17 ngày và đêm Hải Ninh Life of Vietnamese living on both sides of the 17th parallel that splits Vietnam into North and South. 1973 South Vietnam Chiếc bóng bên đường Nguyễn Văn Tường 1974 South Vietnam Đất khổ Ha Thuc Can The Battle of Hue during the Tet Offensive in 1968. 1974 US There Is No 13 William Sachs Surrealist cinema based film involving a young Vietnam War soldier reminiscing about twelve love affairs with the cinematography ending before the subject of the thirteenth romance. 1975 Republic of South Vietnam Girl from Hanoi Hải Ninh Operation Linebacker II. 1978 Hong Kong, US The Boys in Company C Sidney J. Furie A group of Marines go through basic training and a tour of service in Vietnam in 1968. 1978 US Go Tell the Spartans Ted Post US military advisers during the early part of the war (1964). 1978 US, UK The Deer Hunter Michael Cimino Three friends from Pennsylvania go off to fight, and come back changed men.[23] 1979 Australia The Odd Angry Shot Tom Jeffrey Follows a group of Australian soldiers in Vietnam. 1979 Vietnam The Abandoned Field: Free Fire Zone (Cánh đồng hoang) Nguyễn Hồng Sến An "unnerving and compelling .. subjective-camera-eye-view" of life under helicopter fire in the Mekong Delta. The film cuts to an (American) "helicopter-eye view", contrasting painfully with the human tenderness seen earlier.[24] 1979 US Apocalypse Now Francis Ford Coppola A special forces officer is called in to locate and kill a rogue colonel[23] in a retelling of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. 1980 Italy The Last Hunter Antonio Margheriti Set in 1973, a US officer goes on a dangerous mission behind enemy lines to blow up an enemy propaganda radio station. 1981 UK How Sleep the Brave Lyndon James Swift A group of new soldiers go on a mission in the jungle. 1982 US Don't Cry, It's Only Thunder Peter Werner An Army medic in Saigon takes care of a group of Vietnamese orphans. 1982 Vietnam Ván bài lật ngửa Lê Hoàng Hoa Biopic of the North Vietnamese spy Pham Ngoc Thao. 1982 Vietnam Con thú tật nguyền Hồ Quang Minh 1983 US Streamers Robert Altman Four soldiers awaiting deployment to Vietnam. 1984 US Birdy Alan Parker The friendship between two teenage boys, Birdy (Matthew Modine) and Al (Nicolas Cage), and their traumatic experiences upon serving in the war. 1984 US Purple Hearts Sidney J. Furie Love story between a surgeon (Ken Wahl) and a nurse (Cheryl Ladd) who are serving in the U.S. Navy during the war. 1985 Vietnam, USSR Coordinates of Death[25] (a.k.a. Target for Death) Samvel Gasparov, Suan Tian Nguyen Stranded Soviet sailors witness American war brutality. 1985 US Missing in Action 2: The Beginning Lance Hool U.S. POW breaks out of Vietnamese prison camp. 1986 US Platoon Oliver Stone A new recruit's service in a platoon of soldiers patrolling the Cambodian border.[23] 1987 US, Philippines Eye of the Eagle Cirio H. Santiago US officer hunts down rogue G.I.s. 1987 US Gardens of Stone Francis Ford Coppola Set in 1968–1969, James Caan plays the frustrated sergeant in charge of the Arlington National Cemetery ceremonial guard. 1987 UK, US Full Metal Jacket Stanley Kubrick Battle of Hue Tet Offensive[23] 1987 US Hamburger Hill John Irvin Battle of Hamburger Hill in the Ashau Valley.[23] 1987 US Good Morning, Vietnam Barry Levinson Loosely based on the experiences of AFRS radio DJ Adrian Cronauer. 1988 US Off Limits Christopher Crowe Two US Criminal Investigation Command agents investigate murders of Vietnamese prostitutes by high-ranking US officers. 1988 US Platoon Leader Aaron Norris An inexperienced officer learns the ropes of fighting in Vietnam. 1988 US Bat*21 Peter Markle Lt. Col. Iceal Hambleton's experience of survival while MIA. 1988 US 1969 Ernest Thompson The film deals with the Vietnam War and the resulting social tensions between those who support and oppose the war in small-town America. 1989 US The Iron Triangle Eric Weston Viet Cong soldier protects captured GI who spared his life. 1989 US, Philippines The Siege of Firebase Gloria Brian Trenchard-Smith Marines defend a firebase during the Tet offensive. 1989 US 84C MoPic Patrick Sheane Duncan Found footage-style mockumentary follows a US Long-range reconnaissance patrol. 1989 Philippines, US Eye of the Eagle 2: Inside the Enemy Carl Franklin US soldier goes to rescue Vietnamese girlfriend who has been kidnapped by superior officer. 1989 US The Expendables Cirio H. Santiago Commando trains a group of misfit soldiers for dangerous mission. 1989 US Casualties of War Brian De Palma The incident on Hill 192.[26] 1989 Hong Kong A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon Tsui Hark A crime story involving the struggle of Chinese mobsters and their family trying to get back to Hong Kong during the fall of Saigon. 1989 US Born on the Fourth of July Oliver Stone Based on the experiences of Ron Kovic, who joined the Marines and was wounded and paralyzed in Vietnam. Upon his return to the US, he evolves into a significant activist against the war.[27] 1990 US Air America Roger Spottiswoode Air America pilots uncover U.S. plot to smuggle narcotics. 1990 Hong Kong Bullet in the Head John Woo Hong Kong mobsters travel to Vietnam during the war to smuggle illegal goods. They get entangled with both sides in the war. 1991 US Flight of the Intruder John Milius A-6 Intruder pilots go on an unauthorized mission to bomb targets in North Vietnam. 1991 US Dogfight Nancy Savoca Dogfight shows the last night of several marines in San Francisco, before they are sent to the Vietnam war. Only a short scene of the war itself is shown, where several of the Marines die. Later one marine gets back to San Francisco, where he realises that everything has changed, even the behaviour of the society towards the Marines. 1991 US For the Boys Mark Rydell Bette Midler and James Caan portray two USO artists who entertain the troops and experience turmoil. 1992 South Korea White Badge Chung Ji-young Story of two South Koreans who served in Vietnam. 1993 US, France Heaven & Earth Oliver Stone Based on the experiences of Vietnamese civilian Le Ly Hayslip of the Vietnam war and its aftermath. 1994 US Forrest Gump Robert Zemeckis Title character serves in Vietnam. 1995 US The Walking Dead Preston A. Whitmore II In the waning days of the war, a group of Marines are sent to rescue US POWs. 1995 US Operation Dumbo Drop Simon Wincer Green Berets bribe Vietnamese villagers with an elephant. 1995 US Dead Presidents Albert Hughes Characters serve in Vietnam. 1998 Puerto Rico Héroes de otra patria ("Heroes from Another Country") Iván Dariel Ortíz Two Puerto Rican soldiers in action and their family back home. 2000 US, Germany Tigerland Joel Schumacher US recruits go through basic training before going to Vietnam. 2002 US, Germany We Were Soldiers Randall Wallace Battle of Ia Drang. 2003 Vietnam Hà Nội 12 ngày đêm Bùi Đình Hạc Operation Linebacker II. 2003 South Korea The Classic Kwak Jae-yong A romantic movie set in 1968. Joon-ha joins the South Korean Army and goes to Vietnam. 2004 South Korea R-Point Kong Su-chang South Korean unit is sent out to find missing platoon in this horror film. 2005 Vietnam Liberate Saigon [vi] Long Vân North Vietnam and Viet Cong's offensive during the fall of Saigon. 2008 South Korea Sunny Lee Joon-ik Wife of South Korean serving in Vietnam takes job as singer to be near her husband. 2008 Canada, US, Germany Tunnel Rats Uwe Boll U.S. "Tunnel rats" who go into Viet Cong tunnel complexes. 2009 Canada, US, Germany 21 and a Wake-Up Chris McIntyre The film focuses on real people McIntyre knew in the Marines, as well as experiences of Dr. Marvin Wayne, renowned and decorated physician at the 24th Evac in its final year. 2012 Australia The Sapphires Wayne Blair The Sapphires is about four indigenous Australian women, Gail (Deborah Mailman), Julie (Jessica Mauboy), Kay (Shari Sebbens) and Cynthia (Miranda Tapsell), who are discovered by a talent scout (Chris O'Dowd), and form a music group named The Sapphires, travelling to Vietnam in 1968 to sing for troops during the war. 2013 Japan Number Ten Blues Norio Osada Saigon in February 1975, during the final stage of the Vietnam War, there is another story of love and violence. Japanese businessman Sugimoto (Yūsuke Kawazu) accidentally kills a Vietnamese man. 2014 South Korea Ode to My Father Yoon Je-kyoon The main character and his best friend serve in the Vietnam War. 2015 US Ride the Thunder Fred Koster The movie takes place during the Easter Offensive in 1972 and the aftermath of the Fall of Saigon in 1975 with the Vietnamese communist camps. The protagonists are US Captain John Ripley and ARVN Lieutenant Colonel Le Ba Binh. 2017 US The Post Steven Spielberg Set in the early 1970s, The Post depicts the true story of attempts by journalists at the Washington Post to publish the Pentagon Papers, classified documents regarding the 30-year involvement of the United States government in the Vietnam War. 2019 Australia Danger Close: The Battle of Long Tan Kriv Stenders Battle of Long Tan in August 1966. 2019 US The Last Full Measure (2019 film) Todd Robinson The story follows the efforts of Pentagon staffer Scott Huffman and many veterans to see the Medal of Honor awarded to William H. Pitsenbarger, a United States Air Force Pararescueman who flew in helicopter rescue missions during the Vietnam War to aid downed soldiers and pilots. 2020 US Da 5 Bloods Spike Lee Follows four aging Vietnam War veterans who return to the country in search of the remains of their fallen squad leader. 2022 US The Greatest Beer Run Ever Peter Farrelly Marine Corps veteran goes to Vietnam to give his childhood friends a beer. Theatrical films about the Vietnam War POWs Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1987 US The Hanoi Hilton Lionel Chetwynd Mistreatment of U.S. POWs in the Hỏa Lò Prison. 1987 US In Love and War Lionel Chetwynd Mistreatment of U.S. POWs in the Hỏa Lò Prison. 2006 US Rescue Dawn Werner Herzog Dieter Dengler's experience as a POW. Theatrical films about the anti-Vietnam War movement Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1969 US Hail, Hero! David Miller A young man (Michael Douglas in his screen debut) is torn between joining the army or becoming a hippie. 1979 US Hair Miloš Forman Film adaptation of the 1968 Broadway musical of the same name about a Vietnam war draftee who meets and befriends a tribe of long-haired hippies on his way to the army induction center. 1980 US Return of the Secaucus 7 John Sayles Reunion of anti-war protesters. 2007 US Across the Universe Julie Taymor The main character's best friend is drafted to fight in the war. 2020 US The Trial of the Chicago 7 Aaron Sorkin Follows the Chicago Seven, a group of anti–Vietnam War protesters charged with the intention of inciting riots at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Theatrical films about Vietnam War veterans Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1965 US Motorpsycho Russ Meyer A US motorcycle gang is led by a disturbed veteran. 1967 US The Born Losers Tom Laughlin A Vietnam veteran protects a woman who has been assaulted by an outlaw biker gang. 1968 US Targets Peter Bogdanovich A disturbed Vietnam veteran goes on a sniper shooting spree after killing his wife and mother.[28] 1971 US Billy Jack Tom Laughlin A Vietnam veteran defends the hippie-themed Freedom School against corrupt local officials. Sequel to The Born Losers. 1972 US The Visitors Elia Kazan Vietnam veterans confront each other over war crime.[29] 1972 US Welcome Home Soldier Boys Richard Compton Four Vietnam veterans embark on a road trip to California and are killed in a Vietnam War-recreated battle with National Guardsmen.[30] 1973 US Forced Entry Shaun Costello An unnamed and psychotic Vietnam War veteran who returns from the Vietnam War sexually assaults and kills random women who stop at the filling station where he works as a gas station attendant. 1974 Canada Deathdream Bob Clark War veteran returns home as a living corpse.[31] 1974 US The Trial of Billy Jack Tom Laughlin Follows the story of Billy Jack and the Freedom School during and after his prison stint, culminating in a scene reminiscent of the Kent State shootings. Sequel to The Born Losers and Billy Jack. 1976 US Taxi Driver Martin Scorsese A mentally disturbed Vietnam veteran comes to New York City after the war, and gets a job driving taxicabs due to insomnia. He is unable to fit into society, displays obsessive behavior, and is driven to violence. 1976 US The Zebra Force Joe Tornatore The film is about a group of Vietnam War veterans who declare war on Los Angeles drug dealers and the Mafia. 1977 US Heroes Jeremy Kagan Amnesiac Vietnam veteran seeks out former comrades. 1977 US Rolling Thunder John Flynn A returning Vietnam veteran loses his family to a violent home invasion, and decides to seek and retaliate against those responsible. 1977 US Billy Jack Goes to Washington Tom Laughlin In the fourth film of the Billy Jack series, the title character is appointed to the U.S. Senate, where he wages war on corruption. 1978 US Coming Home Hal Ashby Homecoming of a Vietnam veteran. 1978 US Big Wednesday John Milius 3 surfer friends face the draft in 1965, one serves in Vietnam and they reunite in the early 1970s. 1980 US The Exterminator James Glickenhaus Vietnam veteran turns vigilante. 1980 US The Stunt Man Richard Rush Vietnam veteran stumbles on a movie set and takes a job as a stunt man to hide out from police. 1982 US First Blood Ted Kotcheff John Rambo, a highly decorated special forces veteran traumatized by his experiences as a prisoner of war, goes on a rampage in a northwestern U.S. town against law enforcement officers who push him too far. 1983 US Americana David Carradine A down on his luck, former Green Beret captain, freshly discharged from the Vietnam War, drifts into Drury, Kansas. 1985 US Alamo Bay David Carradine Alamo Bay is a 1985 drama film about a Vietnam veteran who clashes with Vietnamese immigrants who move to his fictitious Texas bay hometown. 1986 US Combat Shock Buddy Giovinazzo Vietnam veteran goes insane. 1987 Hong Kong Eastern Condors Sammo Hung Lieutenant Colonel Lam is an American army officer given a top-secret mission by the US military. The mission entails entering Vietnam to destroy an old American bunker filled with missiles before the Viet Cong can get to them. 1988 US Braddock: Missing in Action III Aaron Norris Vietnam vet goes back to Vietnam to rescue left behind wife and child. 1988 US Above the Law Andrew Davis The main character was recruited into the CIA by Special Agent Nelson Fox and was involved in covert operations on the Vietnamese-Cambodian border during the Vietnam War. 1989 US Jacknife David Jones Vietnam veterans have trouble adjusting to civilian life. 1989 US In Country Norman Jewison Daughter of deceased Vietnam vet explores her father's past through her uncle, also a vet. 1990 US Jacob's Ladder Adrian Lyne Vietnam vet is haunted by his past. 1991 US McBain James Glickenhaus Vietnam veterans reunite to depose a Colombian dictator. 1992 US Universal Soldier Roland Emmerich The film tells the story of Luc Deveraux, a former U.S. Army soldier who was killed in the Vietnam War in 1969, and returned to life following a secret military project called the "Universal Soldier" program. 1994 US The War Jon Avnet A returned Vietnam Veteran struggles to find work and re-establish himself back home. 2001 US Spy Game Tony Scott 2007 US American Gangster Ridley Scott The film is fictionally based on the criminal career of Frank Lucas, a gangster from La Grange, North Carolina who smuggled heroin into the United States on American service planes returning from the Vietnam War, before being detained by a task force led by detective Richie Roberts. 2009 US Watchmen Zack Snyder Some characters are Vietnam War veterans. 2009 US X-Men Origins: Wolverine Gavin Hood The main character is a Vietnam War veteran. 2014 South Korea Obsessed Kim Dae-woo Erotic romance film written and directed by Kim Dae-woo, about a couple having a passionate affair in a military camp under tight surveillance in 1969. 2017 US Last Flag Flying Richard Linklater Spiritual sequel to The Last Detail following a group of Vietnam veterans attending the funeral of one of their sons who died in Iraq. 2017 US Kong: Skull Island Jordan Vogt-Roberts An expedition to Skull Island was made by a US recon team to explore the odd island. 2017 US The Foreigner Martin Campbell Ngoc Minh Quan, a former Chinese Vietnam War US special forces operator turned London restaurateur, who looks for revenge after his daughter is killed in a bombing. Theatrical films about Vietnam War MIAs Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1978 US Good Guys Wear Black Ted Post Former CIA assassin battles duplicitous US government official. 1983 US Uncommon Valor Ted Kotcheff Father organizes a group of Vietnam veterans to go back and rescue his son who is secretly held prisoner in Laos. 1984 US Missing in Action Joseph Zito Vietnam veteran goes back to Vietnam to free secretly held POWs. 1985 US Rambo: First Blood Part II George P. Cosmatos Vietnam veteran goes back to Vietnam to free secretly held POWs. Theatrical films about the Indochina refugee crisis Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1981 Hong Kong The Story of Woo Viet Ann Hui The story centers on the character Woo Viet, who wants to leave his country Vietnam behind and start over in the United States. 1982 Hong Kong Boat People Ann Hui The Fall of Saigon and its aftermath. 1984 UK The Killing Fields Roland Joffé A biographical drama film about the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, which is based on the experiences of two journalists: Cambodian Dith Pran and American Sydney Schanberg. 1985 US Alamo Bay Louis Malle A drama film about a Vietnam veteran who clashes with Vietnamese immigrants who move to his fictitious Texas bay hometown. A despondent Vietnam veteran in danger of losing his livelihood is pushed to the edge when he sees Vietnamese immigrants moving into the fishing industry in a Texas bay town. He teams up with other fishermen and the KKK to terrorize the Vietnamese fishermen in a campaign of violence and intimidation based on true historical events that took place in Texas in the late 1970s and early 1980s. 1992 Australia Turtle Beach Stephen Wallace Judith, an Australian photojournalist (Greta Scacchi), leaves her family to cover the story of Vietnamese boat people in a Malaysian refugee camp. There she befriends Minou, a Vietnamese streetwalker (Joan Chen), who has married a diplomat and together they try to bring awareness to the terrible conditions suffered by the people there. 2001 US Green Dragon Timothy Linh Bui The experiences of Vietnamese refugees in the United States immediately following the end of the war. 2004 US The Beautiful Country Hans Petter Moland A Vietnamese boy (Damien Nguyen) goes to the US to search for his father, an American ex-soldier. 2005 Vietnam Sống trong sợ hãi (Living in Fear) Bùi Thạc Chuyên A Vietnamese farmer is supporting two families after the end of the war - one in the north, which he abandoned after fleeing during the war, and his new family in the south. To get enough money he sets on to re-cultivate a field full of mines. His life and psyche is changing while he removes each mine by himself. 2007 US Journey from the Fall Ham Tran Vietnamese experience of post-war re-education camps and life as refugees. 2009 Australia Mother Fish Khoa Do Mother Fish, also known as Missing Water, is a feature film written, produced and directed by Khoa Do. The film draws largely from Khoa Do's own experiences as a Vietnamese refugee, and reflects on the perceived fear in the general population generated by 'boat people' which is prevalent in Australian politics and discourse. Mother Fish follows the story of a middle-aged Vietnamese woman (Hyen Nguyen) working in a suburban sweatshop. In the evening when the workers have left, she is transported back to the night she and her sister (Sheena Pham) fled her homeland, led by an uncle promising to reunite them with their father. Through the setting of the sweatshop, the woman remembers the journey. The boat is unprepared for the ocean crossing, as are they. Food and water supplies are low, their engine breaks, and the threat of rape and death at the hands of South-sea pirates is real. Through the woman's memory the audience relives the experience of crossing the ocean in search of a better life. 2014 France, Belgium, Cambodia The Gate Régis Wargnier Based on the books by François Bizot. 2012 Israel, US Foreign Letters Ela Thier The movie involves Ellie, a 12-year-old immigrant girl from Israel, and her family after moving into the United States in 1982. At first she experiences all kinds of difficulties, but then she meets Thuy, a Vietnamese refugee her age, bringing a changing point as the movie progresses. Its themes include the immigrant experience, learning English, dealing with prejudice, sharing secrets, opening to other cultures, and creatively handling conflict in friendships. 2017 Cambodia, US First They Killed My Father Angelina Jolie A Khmer biographical historical thriller film written by Angelina Jolie and Loung Ung, based on Ung's memoir of the same name. Set in 1975, the film depicts 7-year-old Ung who is forced to be trained as a child soldier while her siblings are sent to labor camps during the Communist Khmer Rouge regime. Television films about the Vietnam War Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1967 US Wings of Fire David Lowell Rich Doug Sanborn (Ralph Bellamy) runs a small charter company based at a regional airport. His daughter, Kitty (Suzanne Pleshette), a young female pilot wants to be in the Unlimited class at the air races but her male friends stymie her ambitions. Her former boyfriend Taff Malloy (James Farentino) has recently come back from the US Navy and a stint as a pilot in Vietnam. 1979 US When Hell Was in Session Paul Krasny In 1965, Navy Commander Jeremiah Denton's jet is shot down over North Vietnam and he is captured by the enemy who holds him in various brutal POW camps for more than seven years. 1980 US A Rumor of War Richard T. Heffron Dramatization of Philip Caputo's autobiographical book on his service in Vietnam and his growing disillusionment with the war. 1998 US A Bright Shining Lie Terry George Experiences of US Lt. Col. John Paul Vann, military adviser to the South Vietnamese. Based on the book by the same name by Neil Sheehan. 2002 US Path to War John Frankenheimer The Vietnam War as seen through the eyes of US President Lyndon B. Johnson and his cabinet members. 2005 US Faith of My Fathers Peter Markle Experiences of US Navy Lieutenant Commander John McCain (later senator) as a POW. Based on the memoir of the same name. 2016 US All the Way Jay Roach Biographical drama film based on events of the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson. Television films about Vietnam War veterans Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1969 US The Ballad of Andy Crocker George McCowan Begins with a Vietnam firefight and then deals with a veteran's readjustment problems. 1979 US Friendly Fire David Greene Based on actual events explores the questionable death of a Vietnam PFC and families quest seeking the truth about shrapnel affliction. 1985 Canada, US The Park Is Mine Steven Hilliard Stern A Vietnam vet takes forceful control of Central Park to remember those who served and died in the Vietnam War. 2001 Canada, US Under Heavy Fire Sidney J. Furie Reunited veterans visit Vietnam 25 years after the war, flashbacks to their battles. 2003 US Word of Honor Robert Markowitz A former army officer is charged with war crimes allegedly committed by his unit in Vietnam. 2006 US, Canada The Veteran Sidney J. Furie Vietnam veteran and state senator returns to Vietnam 30 years after the war, and is secretly probed for information on missing soldier. Documentary films Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1965 Canada The Mills of the Gods: Viet Nam Beryl Fox Various scenes from the war, appearance by Bernard B. Fall. 1967 France The Anderson Platoon Pierre Schoendoerffer Follows a deployed US infantry platoon in Vietnam. 1967 France Far from Vietnam Joris Ivens, William Klein, Claude Lelouch, Agnès Varda, Jean-Luc Godard, Chris Marker and Alain Resnais 1968 US A Face of War Eugene S. Jones Day-to-day activities of active duty Marines. 1969 US In the Year of the Pig Emile de Antonio History of the war. 1970 US Street Scenes 1970 Martin Scorsese Follows two demonstrations against the war, interviews with participants and bystanders. 1970 US The World of Charlie Company John Laurence Follows US troops of Charlie Company, 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, of the 1st Cavalry Division. 1971 US Vietnam! Vietnam! Sherman Beck A United States Information Agency film, narrated by Charlton Heston, was shot on location in Vietnam in October–December 1968 but not released until 1971. 1972 East Germany Remington Cal. 12 Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann Mixing Remington Arms publicity and appropriated scenes of The Green Berets, it explains how American troop modified Remington caliber 12 ammunition into "tiny, flesh-tearing aluminum missiles that cannot be detected by X-rays".[32] 1972 US Winter Soldier Follows the Winter Soldier Investigation. 1974 US Hearts and Minds Peter Davis Interviews with Americans and Vietnamese. 1976 East Germany Der Teufelsinsel Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann Interviews with former prisoner Le Quang Vinh about the South Vietnamese Co Son prison.[32] 1976 East Germany Eintritt kostenlos Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann A tour of the Vietnam War Museum in Hanoi.[32] 1977 East Germany Der erste Reis danach Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann Links between former German Nazis and anti-Nazis and the Vietnam war.[32] 1977 East Germany Die eiserne Festung[32] Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann 1977 East Germany Ich bereue aufrichtig[32] Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann Through the South Vietnamese commander Lam Van Phat and his North Vietnamese sister, captain Lam Thi Phan, the film reflects on the possibility of re-educating enemies. 1979 East Germany Am Wassergraben[32] Walter Heynowski, Gerhard Scheumann 1979 US The War at Home Glenn Silber, Barry Alexander Brown About the anti-Vietnam war movement in the Madison, Wisconsin area. 1979 UK Year Zero: The Silent Death of Cambodia David Munro The war in Cambodia and its aftermath under the rule of the Khmer Rouge. 1980 Canada Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day War (TV miniseries) Michael Maclear (producer) History of the conflict from the First Indochina War to the Fall of Saigon. 1982 US The Uncounted Enemy George Crile III (producer) The film alleges that general William Westmoreland presented false numbers of enemy combatants to the US public. 1983 US Vietnam: A Television History (TV miniseries) Based on Karnow's book Vietnam: A History. 1987 US Dear America: Letters Home from Vietnam Bill Couturié Based on letters from US soldiers serving in Vietnam. 1989 UK Four Hours in My Lai (Yorkshire Television documentary) My Lai Massacre. 1990 US Berkeley in the Sixties Mark Kitchell Anti-war protesters at Berkeley University. 1995 UK Vietnam: The Last Battle David Munro Review of the history of Vietnam of the two decades since the end of the war. 1997 Germany, UK, France Little Dieter Needs to Fly Werner Herzog Documents Dieter Dengler's experience as a POW in North Vietnam, and his escape. 1998 US Regret to Inform Barbara Sonneborn The director, a US war widow, goes to Vietnam to explore the loss of her husband. 1999 Vietnam The Sound of the Violin in My Lai (Tiếng vỹ cầm ở Mỹ Lai) Tran Van Thuy My Lai Massacre 2001 The Netherlands First Kill Coco Schrijber The psychology of war is explored through interviews with Vietnam veterans. 2001 US Unfinished Symphony: Democracy and Dissent Bestor Cram, Mike Majoros Follows a three-day protest against the war in Lexington, Massachusetts over Memorial Day weekend in 1971, staged by newly returned war veterans. 2001 US Investigation of a Flame Lynne Sachs Story of the Catonsville Nine, Catholic activists who burned draft files in 1968 to protest against the war. 2002 US Daughter from Danang Gail Dolgin, Vicente Franco US woman, daughter of US soldier and Vietnamese woman goes to Vietnam to meet her biological relatives. 2003 US The Fog of War Errol Morris Interview with Robert S. McNamara, US Secretary of Defense during the war. 2004 US In the Shadow of the Blade Patrick Fries, Cheryl Fries Huey helicopter on cross-US tour reunites veterans and veterans' relatives. 2004 US Stolen Honor Carlton Sherwood The film connects the testimony of John Kerry with increased mistreatment of US POWs. 2004 US Going Upriver George Butler U.S. Senator John Kerry's military service and his subsequent participation in the anti-war movement. 2005 France Enemy Image Mark Daniels Examines the impact of televised war reporting, starting with the relatively unrestricted reporting during the Vietnam War. 2005 US Sir! No Sir! David Zeiger Anti-war sentiments within the US armed forces. 2006 Australia The Battle of Long Tan Damien Lay During the Battle of Long Tan, 108 young and mostly inexperienced Australian and New Zealand soldiers fight for survival against an overwhelming enemy force of 2,500. 2007 US The Camden 28 Anthony Giacchino Follows twenty-eight members of the Catholic Left who were arrested in 1971 for attempting to break into and vandalize a draft board. 2007 US Bomb Harvest Kim Mordaunt Aftermath of the bombing of Laos during the war, the problem of large amounts of Unexploded Ordnance in the country. 2008 US Between the Lines Scott Bass, Ty Ponder The impact of the war on US surfing culture. 2009 US The Most Dangerous Man in America: Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers Judith Ehrlich, Rick Goldsmith About Daniel Ellsberg and his leaking of the Pentagon Papers, a secret US government history of the war. 2011 US Vietnam in HD (TV miniseries) Sammy Jackson Better known as the Vietnam Lost Films is a six part documentary of thirteen Americans confronting their experience of war in Vietnam. 2012 US Into Harm's Way Jordan Kronick West Point Class of 1967 and their experiences during college and in the Vietnam War. 2014 US Last Days in Vietnam Rory Kennedy About the evacuation of American and South Vietnamese Citizens. 2017 US The Vietnam War Ken Burns and Lynn Novick History of the war from the anti-colonial struggle against the French to the exit of the Americans in 1973. 2023 US "The Movement and the "Madman" (PBS American Experience) Stephen Talbot Anti-war protests in 1969 cause Nixon to cancel his "madman" strategy for a massive escalation of the war.[33] Documentary TV series Year Country Title Director Events depicted 1968 East Germany Pilots in Pajamas Walter Heynowski [de] Gerhard Scheumann [de] Interviews with American pilots in the "Hanoi Hilton" North Vietnam prisoner camp.[32] See also Category:Vietnam War films List of Vietnam War games Notes Vietnam War: American Cinema After the War, FilmReference.com, retrieved 2009-03-18 Muse 1993, p. 88. Kern, Louis J. (1988). "MIAs, Myth, and Macho Magic: Post-Apocalyptic Cinematic Visions of Vietnam". In Searle, William J. (ed.). Search and Clear: Critical Responses to Selected Literature and Films of the Vietnam War. Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 43, 51. ISBN 0-87972-429-3. The Avenger Vet evolved in the context of the wave of exploitation films produced in the latter half of the 1960s and the early 1970s, that although coterminous with the course of the war, were part of the phenomenon of psychic denial and collective amnesia about Vietnam that characterized American consciousness during that era. These films might most properly be called "Vetsploitation"5 films. Like the network television shows about the era, they were not directly about the war, but instead focused on returning servicemen "as freaked out [losers] who replayed the Vietnam war by committing violence against others or themselves. Vets were time bombs waiting to go off, a new genre of bogeymen (Gibson 3). Note 5, p. 51: They existed side by side with Blaxploitation, Femsploitation, and Teensploitation films in the world of "B" cinema. Muse 1993, p. 88-89. Muse 1993, p. 89. Muse 1993, p. 89-90. Muse 1993, p. 91. Muse 1993, p. 90. Muse 1993, p. 90-91. Hellmann 1991, p. 140. Muse 1993, p. 91-92. Marchetti 1994, p. 100-101. Marchetti 1994, p. 100. Marchetti 1994, p. 101. Marchetti 1994, p. 101-102. Marchetti 1994, p. 102. Marchetti 1994, p. 102-103. Marchetti 1994, p. 104-107. Marchetti 1994, p. 105. Marchetti 1994, p. 107. Marchetti 1994, p. 106-108. Marchetti 1994, p. 103. Neale, Stephen (2000). "War Films". Genre and Hollywood. Psychology Press. pp. 121–124. ISBN 978-0-415-02606-2. "The Abandoned Field-Free Fire Zone (Canh dong hoang)". University of California, Berkeley Art Museum & Pacific Film Archive. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2015. IMDb, plus RUSCICO DVD, 2000, ALL region, with menu and subtitles in English, French; subtitles only in German, Spanish, and Italian. Clarke, 2006. pp. 193–202 Clarke, 2006. pp. 181–192 Devine, 1995. p. 37 Devine, 1995. pp. 87–88 Devine, 1995. pp. 84–85 Devine, 1995. p. 89 Alter, Nora M. (1996). "Excessive Pre/Requisites: Vietnam Through the East German Lens". Cultural Critique (35): 39–79. doi:10.2307/1354571. JSTOR 1354571. "The Movement and the "Madman" | American Experience | PBS". PBS. References Clarke, James (2006). War Films. Virgin Books. ISBN 978-0-753-51094-0. Devine, Jeremy M. (1995). Vietnam at 24 Frames a Second A Critical and Thematic Analysis of Over 400 Films About the Vietnam War. McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-89950-848-0. Hellmann, John (1991). Micahel Anderegg (ed.). Inventing Vietnam: The War in Film and Television. Temple University Press. pp. 140–152. Marchetti, Gina (1994). Romance and the "Yellow Peril" Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520084957. Muse, Eben J (April 1993). "From Lt. Calley to John Rambo: Repatriating the Vietnam War". Journal of American Studies. 27 (1): 88–92. doi:10.1017/S0021875800032692. S2CID 143715980. Further reading Dittmar, Linda; Michaud, Gene (1990). From Hanoi to Hollywood: the Vietnam War in American film. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-1586-6. Anderegg, Michael A. (1991). Inventing Vietnam: The War in Film and Television. Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-861-2. Hixon, Walter (2000). Historical memory and representations of the Vietnam War. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-3536-9. Taylor, Mark (2003). The Vietnam War in History, Literature, and Film. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-1401-6. Raimondi, Antonio; Raimondi, Rocco (2021). The Vietnam War Movies. Amazon Digital Services LLC - Kdp. ISBN 979-8590065837. Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata United StatesIsrael Categories: Vietnam War filmsLists of films by genreLists of war films
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